Blind.

Blind. Blindness may arise from any cause intercepting the rays of light on their way to the optic nerve, or from disease of the optic nerve, or of that part of the brain connected with it. Blindness may vary in degree; it may exist from birth, or be the result of disease at any period of life. It may only be present during the day or the night, or a few weeks of the year, or it may be permanent. Only a few are born blind, although many lose their sight in infancy from preventable causes. One of the most frequent causes of blindness is the inflammation of the eyes of new-born babies, a disease which generally can be prevented, and always cured. In almost all blind schools in England and the Continent, a third, and even more, of the pupils' blindness is caused by the neglect and unsuitable treatment of this disease. Eminent oculists state that half the blindness in Europe is due to this inflammation of the eyes of new-born babies. (See publications of the Society for the Prevention of Blindness, 48 Wimple Street, London, W.). Many become blind by accidents, smallpox, scarlet fever, measles, whooping-cough, or the various diseases of the Eye (q.v.).

The man who loses his sight after having had full use of it for years is profoundly to be pitied. He has lost not merely that great gateway of knowledge, but it frequently happens that the loss of sight, for a time at least, shatters and enfeebles mental energy, and weakens the remaining senses and powers. Milton, blind himself, makes Samson say:

Now blind, disheartened, shamed, dishonoured, quelled,
To what can I be useful? wherein serve
My nation, and the work from heaven imposed?
But to sit idle on the household hearth,
A burdenous drone, to visitants a gaze,
Or pitied object.

The man born blind is in many ways still worse off: he cannot in the least imagine to himself what it is to be able to see; colour and visual form are unknown to him (see VISION). Locke's blind man who imagined that 'scarlet was like the sound of a trumpet,' made but a very random shot. Nor is it true that the blind man's other senses are preternaturally acute, and that blind people are always good musicians. A blind boy, under proper training, can indeed have his senses of touch and hearing developed to a state of exceeding acuteness, though they can never make up for the lost faculty. A blind boy who can read with the first finger of each hand, will be as unable as the seeing to use the other fingers for reading, unless he has practised with them. Without careful training and persevering industry, the blind cannot attain even creditable proficiency in music. Amongst blind men, some of them blind from infancy, who have more or less completely triumphed over their disadvantages or been otherwise famous, may be named Homer; Belisarius; John Milton; the Cambridge professor, Nicholas Saunderson (q.v.); Dr Blacklock; John Metcalf of Knaresborough, road surveyor (blind from six years of age); Holman, the blind traveller; Hüber, the naturalist; Prescott, the historian; Louis Braille; Sir George Macfarren; and Professor Fawcett. The blind have at various times suffered under special legal disabilities, for example as to acting as witnesses and as to succession to fiefs and thrones; by the canon law a blind man was disqualified for holy orders.

At four successive censuses the total number of blind was:

At the same dates the number of the general population to each blind person was:

'In England, Wales, and Scotland, the proportion of blind to the whole population has decreased with each successive enumeration since 1851, in which year a special account of the blind was first taken; but the decrease in the decade ending 1881 was much greater than in either the preceding decennial intervals. The decrease may be fairly attributed to the progressive improvement in surgical treatment of affections of the eyes, and to the diminished prevalence of such diseases as smallpox, to which a considerable amount of blindness was formerly due. Another cause of decrease is probably the improvement of the health of the community due to better sanitation. Had blindness been as common in 1881 as in 1851, there would have been 26,523 blind persons in England and Wales, instead of 22,832, or 16·2 per cent. more than there actually were. Among the 22,832 blind persons enumerated were 1958 who, according to the returns, had been blind from birth. This, however, must be interpreted as including not only those who literally answered such description, but those also who had lost their sight at a very early age, for it appears to be an extremely rare thing for an infant to be actually blind at the time of birth.' In England and Wales the number of blind per million of the population was, in 1880, as follows: under 5 years of age, 166; from 5 to 15, 288; 15 to 20, 388; 20 to 25, 422; 25 to 45, 641; 45 to 65, 1625; 65 years of age and upwards, 6915. At the census of 1891 the number of the blind had again decidedly declined: in England and Wales the number was 23,467; in Scotland, 2797; in Ireland, 5341.

In the United States, in 1890, the number of the blind was 50,411; in 1880 there were in the United

States in all 48,928 blind persons, of whom 26,748 were males and 22,180 females. There were 40,599 of them native, 8239 foreign; and 41,278 were white, while 7650 were coloured, 244 Indians, and 22 Chinese. There was thus one blind person to every 1023 of the general population.

The following table shows the number of blind persons per million according to sex in different countries :

Institutions.—The first institution for the blind of which we have any record was a hospital merely, namely, that founded by St Louis at Paris in 1260, specially for crusaders who had lost their eyesight in Egypt. There have been many such hospitals, where no attempt at education was made. J. Bernouilli (q.v.) seems to have been the first to teach a blind girl to write (in 1657). But it was Valentin Haüy of Paris who in 1784 made the first successful attempt to educate the blind. To him is due the honour of instituting a movement which has resulted in the establishment of institutions for education, and workshops for the training and employment of the blind in all civilised countries. Before the end of the century the following institutions were opened in this country: School for the Indigent Blind, Liverpool, 1791; Royal Blind Asylum and School, Edinburgh, 1793; School for the Blind, Bristol, 1793; School for the Indigent Blind, London, 1799. Since the beginning of the 19th century many institutions for the blind have been opened in the United Kingdom. They may be divided into six classes, as follows :

1. 1. Schools for Resident Pupils. ....14
2. 2. A combination of School and Workshop....13
3. 3. Workshops.....21
4. 4. Asylums.....9
5. 5. School and Asylum.....3
6. 6. Workshop and Asylum.....1

Number attending Schools.....1664
Number in Workshops.....1168

School Boards.—In other countries the state provides for the education of the blind, but as yet the English government has not recognised its responsibility in regard to the education of the blind. A beginning has been made by the School Boards of London and some other large towns. The School Board of Glasgow was the first to take up this work, but the School Board for London subsequently took the lead, and adopted a comprehensive and systematic plan. A superintendent, specially qualified for the work, has charge of the training of all blind children under the London School Board. This superintendent has under her five blind teachers, trained at the Royal Normal College for the Blind. The blind children attend board schools, but receive special instruction at thirty centres, the classes varying from 1 to 15 in number, and the amount of teaching given weekly being proportioned to the size of the class.

Home-teaching Societies.—There are about 80 home-teaching societies in the United Kingdom; they are established in all the large towns, and the blind, even in country districts, are visited. 'The objects of the society are to visit the blind in their own homes, to teach them to read by Moon's system (a few are also taught Braille), and when they have learned, to carry them books, which are changed at stated intervals. Some of the Scottish home-teaching societies attempt to start those whom they visit in trades, or otherwise enable them to maintain themselves.'

Indigent Blind Visiting Society (London).—'This society, founded in 1834, has for its object to visit, educate, and relieve the blind at their own homes, independently of asylums. It is the great missionary society to the blind of London, of whom it assists about 900. It relieves pressing cases of temporary distress, assists those whose incomes are nearly, but not quite sufficient to live upon, and starts the blind in trade or business whenever it is likely they will succeed if assisted at the commencement. It has also day-classes in different parts of London, where the blind are taught to read and write. The women are taught knitting, &c., and employment is given them when they have learned.'

British and Foreign Blind Association.—In 1868 a number of blind gentlemen, being aware of the great improvements which had been made in the education and employment of the blind on the Continent and in America, founded the British and Foreign Blind Association for the purpose of promoting the education and employment of the blind, by ascertaining what had been done in these respects in this and other countries, and endeavouring to supply deficiencies where they were found to exist, and by attempting to bring about harmony of action between the different existing schools and institutions. The association soon gained information through its corresponding members of what was being done abroad, and published a report. The executive council of the association has not only endeavoured to induce the various institutions to adopt the best methods and systems of education, but has been indefatigable in its efforts to improve and cheapen the apparatus, books, maps, &c. used by the blind.

United States.—In the United States, the 36 institutions, with about 2500 inmates, are as a whole palatial in comparison with those of Britain. Every blind child has a right to be educated at the expense of the state. Some of the best institutions are, however, founded and maintained by private benevolence. Different schools use different systems of reading and writing; the Boston Roman letter, New York point type, Moon, pure Braille, and modified Braille being all in use.

The following table furnishes statistics for other countries :

In 1784 M. Valentin Haüy commenced the first printing in raised characters for the blind, and founded the Institution Nationale des Jeunes Aveugles, which was the first, and still holds its place among the best managed schools for the blind in the Old and New Worlds. The character he chose was the Italic, or written form of the Roman letter. Founts of types were cast and books printed; and having been approved by the

Academy of Sciences, and exhibited before the royal family at Versailles, the art created at the time a great sensation.

Gall's type.—Mr James Gall of Edinburgh saw specimens of Parisian books in 1826, and was deeply impressed with the importance of putting the Bible into the hands of the blind to employ their vacant hours. Being himself a printer and publisher, he resolved to improve the alphabet so as to make it more tangible. In 1827, after much study and many experiments, Mr Gall printed his 'first book' for teaching the blind to read, in a triangular modification of the common alphabet, of which the following is a specimen:

ΒΕΛΟΙΔ ΤΗΕ ΙΑΜΒ ΟΓ ΡΟΔ

This was followed by other little volumes, including a series of Scripture statements and a condensed epitome of Old Testament history. These were received with so much favour, that in 1829 he issued a prospectus for the publication of the Gospel by St John, at one guinea, which was to pay not only for the copies, but preliminary expenses. This work was printed in 1832, but was not published until 1834. In 1832 the Scottish Society of Arts offered a gold medal, value £20, for the best alphabet for the blind. The award was not made till 1837. Sixteen arbitrary alphabets had been sent in, all of which were rejected, and the prize was awarded to a Dr Fry of London, who had suggested the use of Roman capitals, which were introduced in America in 1834. Great interest began to be excited throughout Britain, and extended even to foreign countries. Abbé Carton was sent by the Belgian government to visit Mr Gall's establishment, and returned to set up a printing-press in Brussels. Mr Gall was anxious to improve the printing and lessen the cost; the most important improvement consisted in the use of serrated types, by which the letters were formed of dots (.....) instead of lines. In 1836, therefore, he offered to societies and publishers to print books for the blind in the improved type at so much per sheet, as an ordinary business transaction, without either subscriptions or donations. Of this offer the London Sunday School Union, the Religious Tract Society, and the British and Foreign Bible Society availed themselves in 1837; and in 1838 he printed for the British and Foreign Bible Society the Gospel by St Luke and the Acts of the Apostles.

As the institutions for the blind in those days 'had not hitherto (as they expressed it) patronised any device of this kind,' Mr Gall had to contend with all the apathy and incredulity which every new thing has to encounter. But now the tide had turned; readers were multiplying over the country, schools for the blind were beginning to be formed, the institutions abroad had all 'patronised the device,' and printing-presses were busy both in America and on the Continent; so that when the Sunday School Union, the London Tract Society, and the British and Foreign Bible Society began to publish class-books, tracts, and Bibles for the blind, they all became convinced of its importance.

Howe's or Boston.—Dr Howe also, from Boston, visited Scotland, and having received from Mr Gall all the information which he could supply, established on his return to America a printing-press in the Perkins Institution. In 1834 he published the Acts of the Apostles, and completed the New Testament in 1836. About the same time Mr Friedlander of Philadelphia published the Gospel by St Mark. He unfortunately adopted the capital alphabet. Dr Howe, on the contrary, had adopted an angular modification of the common alphabet, similar to, but much smaller than Mr Gall's, and with that printed the whole Bible, besides an ever-increasing number of other volumes in all departments. For many years Dr Howe supplied books for all the institutions in the United States.

Alston's.—Mr John Alston of Glasgow, who established a printing-press in the Blind Asylum, of which he was treasurer, printed in 1837 the Gospel by St Mark in the same type in which (unknown to him) it had been printed in 1834 by Mr Friedlander in Philadelphia. Through his influence it was at once adopted in the other institutions throughout the kingdom; and, having thrown himself with much enthusiasm into the work, he very soon raised funds by which he completed the New Testament in 1838, and the whole Bible in 1840. To him, therefore, belongs the honour of having printed the first complete Bible for the blind in any language, because Dr Howe of America, although he commenced the work earlier, did not finish it till 1842. The effect was immediate and decisive, rivalry was extinguished, hundreds of the blind were brought under instruction, and reading was thenceforth acknowledged to be a necessary department of the education of the blind. Mr Alston being encouraged by the decision of the Scottish Society of Arts, which he himself helped to influence, made a fatal error in adopting Roman capitals. Reaction very soon took place, the blind themselves being the first to rebel. The want of sufficient legibility was, in their judgment, a fatal objection, and outweighed all other considerations. Even the large amount of money that had been expended, and the extensive libraries that had been formed through Mr Alston's energetic labours, they were prepared to sacrifice, in order to obtain books which they could read with ease. Gall's Serrated Type is illustrated by

ΒΕΛΟΙΔ ΤΗΕ ΛΑΜΒ ΟΓ ΡΟΔ and Howe's American Type by : behold the lamb of God

Lucas's.—In 1838 Mr Lucas of Bristol introduced an ingenious system of stenographic shorthand. It is still used by the London Society for Teaching the Blind to Read. The characters are altogether arbitrary, consisting mainly of lines with or without a dot at one end.

Frere's.—Mr Frere also introduced his phonetic shorthand system about 1838. The embossed characters were only an application of his phonetic system for the seeing, which he hoped would become general. His characters consist of straight lines, half circles, hooked lines, and angles of 45 degrees, together with a hollow and solid circle. Mr Frere also invented the 'return' lines—that is to say, the lines in his book are read from left to right, and from right to left alternately, the letters themselves being reversed in the return lines. He devised a cheap and very ingenious method of setting up and stereotyping his books. The letters, formed of copper wire, are laid on a tin plate, previously washed over with a solution of zinc; when heat is applied to the under-surface, the letter becomes soldered on to the plate, and such plates produce extremely good printing. Both Moon and Lucas adopted this system of stereotyping.

Moon's.—Dr Moon of Brighton, whose system is used more than any other by the adult blind throughout the country, adopted an arbitrary alphabet, some of the characters resembling or suggesting the letters which they represent. He also adopted Mr Frere's return lines, but does not reverse the letters.

It has already been stated that the blind objected to the Roman capitals on account of illegibility. Towards the middle of the 19th century the intelligent blind in all parts of the world began a very earnest protest against the various line-types, which had been arranged with as much regard to the seeing as the blind. In a short time the question became one of dots versus lines. It was then that the great invention of Louis Braille was recognised. He had published a system in 1829, and fully developed it in 1834. His blind friends and co-workers immediately recognised its superiority over the Roman letter, but the school authorities of the Institution Nationale des Jeunes Aveugles would not change the old system. It was not officially adopted in Paris until 1854, two years after the death of its inventor.

Louis Braille was born in January 1809 at Coupvray, about 23 miles from Paris. He became blind through an accident at the age of three. In 1819 he became a pupil of the Institution Nationale des Jeunes Aveugles at Paris. In 1826 he was elected professor at the institution, where he had distinguished himself as a pupil. As a pupil and professor he laboured to invent a system which the blind could not only read, but write in relief. He had been trained as a boy to read the line type; after examining all systems, including arbitrary characters, he became convinced that the one best adapted to reading and writing was M. Barbier's. Barbier's letter contained six points, but was too long vertically to be covered with the finger. Braille worked upon it until he devised the simple and beautiful system which bears his name.

In regard to the necessity for readable and cheap books for the blind, in a character that can be written as well as read, Mr Wait, New York, says: 'Books are as necessary to the blind as to the seeing, and every reason which can be urged why there should be books cheap and plenty for all the seeing, applies with equal force with regard to books for the blind. The necessities of the blind in this respect have been and are urgent, and great efforts have been made to supply the want. But the institutions for the blind in or about which these efforts have generally originated have been so widely separated in regard to time of origin and place of location, that there has been little or no community of interest or of action. The result is that there are no less than eight distinct kinds of alphabet and printing for the blind, each being advocated as having advantages over every other. But if we may judge from the present condition of the art of reading amongst the blind, these alphabets, though produced by the most strenuous exertions and most praiseworthy zeal, have failed in their general utility, and do not answer the purpose for which they were intended. The reasons for this probably are that the principles upon which an alphabet for the blind should be constructed have not been sufficiently understood, and that the soundness of theories has not been properly ascertained by experiment.'

'Statistics collected from seven institutions in the United States showed that of 664 blind persons under instruction, only 225, or 34 per cent., could read with facility; and 185, or 31 per cent., could read moderately well. As a whole, this table shows a marked uniformity in the general results obtained in the several institutions named. If under the most favourable conditions 35 per cent. fail to learn the alphabet of the Boston and Glasgow systems, it is plain that a large majority of all the blind, probably 70 per cent., can never enjoy the privilege of reading. It is a fact which every candid observer must concede, that the systems of printing for the blind at present used in this country do not meet the wants of the blind.

'A trial of the point system proved conclusively, that those who cannot learn either the Boston or Glasgow print can learn the point alphabet. And it should be remarked, that while the ability to read those systems is lost by a short period of disuse, or by working at any business which hardens the cuticle of the fingers, such is not the case with the point alphabet. It can be read by any blind person of ordinary intellect, no matter what his business, nor how long the period of disuse. It is urged against the point signs, that they are arbitrary and unlike the signs used by the seeing. But there is in reality no force in this objection. The necessities of the blind grow out of their condition, and the true value of anything made for their use is found in the fact that it is adapted to their condition and meets their necessities, regardless of other considerations. Which is the more important, that all the young blind should be able to read—thus being made, in fact, like the seeing—or that they should be taught an alphabet which in some sort resembles that used by the seeing, but by doing which only 34 per cent. of them will ever be able to read with any pleasure or profit? The answer of every blind person and of every practical educator is obvious.

'The important point is that the blind shall be like the seeing in what they know and can do, no matter whether the means of knowing or doing be the same as are used by the seeing or not. But the point signs have other important advantages besides that of being easily learned at any time of life by any blind person. They can be used in writing music, keeping accounts, and transcribing books; so that in one and the same system the blind can read and write, thus relieving the memory of heavy burdens and enabling them to grasp a far greater range of subjects, or to engage more deeply and successfully in any given study or pursuit.

'Point signs have another great advantage, which is, that while they are used as letters, they can also be combined so as to represent whole words, abbreviations, and terminations; thus combining the features of the stenographic and alphabetic systems. The shorthand signs could be used in the books and writing of those taught in schools for the blind, while books for adults could be printed in the common signs of the alphabet.

'The values of the point and line systems, in regard to their susceptibility to the touch, may be stated as follows: Point-sign system, 95 per cent.; line-sign system, 48 per cent. This subject is discussed at great length in the report of the New York Institution for the Blind of 1868. Full information is also given in regard to the New York point.' (It should be observed that Mr Wait's experiments with line systems did not include Dr Moon's.)

Braille.—The Braille signs are arbitrary, and consist of varying combinations of six points placed in an oblong, of which the vertical side contains three, and the horizontal two points ( : : ). There are sixty-two possible combinations of these six points, so that after providing characters for the twenty-six letters of the English alphabet there remain a sufficient number of signs for punctuation, contractions, &c.

'The group of six dots, which is the largest number of points that any letter can consist of, is divided into upper, middle, and lower pairs. The first ten letters, from a to j, exhaust all possible combinations of the upper and middle points. The next ten, from k to t, are formed from the first by adding a lower back point to each. Thus, a becomes k, b becomes l, &c. The third row is similarly formed by adding two lower points. Thus, a becomes u, b becomes v, &c.

THE BRAILLE ALPHABET, WITH CONTRACTIONS.

The large dots represent the raised points of the Braille letter; the small simply serve to indicate their position in the group of six. The signs of the 2d, 3d, and 4th lines are formed from those of the 1st by the addition of lower dots.

‘The fourth row of letters is formed from the first by adding a lower front point to each of the first row. The only letter of the ordinary alphabet in this row is w, which is derived from j by adding a lower front point. It will be observed that w comes out of its usual place in the alphabet. This is because the original French alphabet has been adhered to; w not being a letter used in genuine French words, it was originally placed the last on the fourth row, and has been there retained, as placing it out of its usual position was considered a far less evil than altering the meaning of the last four letters of the alphabet.

‘Reading is also facilitated by the use of a few simple, well-chosen contractions, as words being rendered shorter, the finger has less space to traverse.’

It is interesting to know that in Egypt, where the blind are very numerous, the Koran has been printed in the Braille type, and a blind person can earn a good livelihood by reading the Koran at funerals and other occasions. In China there are many blind persons; and here Mr Murray, one of the Scottish Bible Society’s missionaries, has ingeniously adapted the Braille system for printing Chinese.

Braille Writing-frame.—‘For writing, a frame is used consisting of a grooved metal bed, containing ten grooves to the inch; over this is fitted a brass guide, punched with oblong holes, whose vertical diameter is $\backslash frac\{3\}\{10\}$ths of an inch, while the horizontal diameter is $\backslash frac\{1\}\{20\}$ths. This perforated guide is fixed into a light wooden frame, like the frame of a slate, which is attached to the grooved metal bed by hinges. The paper is introduced between the frame and the grooved bed. The instrument for writing is a blunt awl, which carries a little cap of paper before it into the grooves of the bed, thereby producing a series of little pits on the side next the writer. When the paper is taken out and turned over, little prominences are felt corresponding to the pits on the other side. The reading is performed from left to right, consequently the writing is from right to left; but this reversal presents no practical difficulty as soon as the pupil has caught the idea that in reading and writing alike he has to go forwards. The brass guide has a double row of openings, which enables the writer to write two lines; when these are written he shifts his guide downwards until two little pins, which project from the under surface at its ends, drop into corresponding holes of the frame, when the writer writes two more lines; and this operation is repeated until he arrives at the bottom of the page. This description applies to the writing-frame used in France and most parts of the continent of Europe.

‘The English frame is somewhat different. In it

ADDITIONAL SIGNS.

ALPHABETS USED BY THE BLIND. the bed is not grooved, but is marked by groups of little pits, each group consisting of six. These are arranged in two parallel lines, and the guide is hinged on this bed in such a way, that when the two are locked, the openings in the guide correspond exactly to the pits in the bed. When the first two lines have been written, the guide and bed travel as one piece down the board, which is so arranged as to give the right distances between the lines. Each line is separated from the next by a wide interval, which greatly facilitates reading; when the first page has been written the paper is reversed, and the lines of the second page are written in the intervals between those of the first. A simple mechanical arrangement enables a blind person to do this with ease and certainty.

This interlined writing not only makes the writing far more legible than that produced in the original French frame, but also effects a saving of space amounting to about 20 per cent.

New York Point.—A modification of the Braille, now known as New York point, is generally adopted in the United States. The long diameter of the full letter of six points is horizontal instead of vertical ( : : : ), the letters recurring most frequently being represented by the smallest number of points.

Braille Musical Notation.—Braille furnishes a musical notation less complicated and easier to learn than the ordinary staff notation. Any music whatever can be written. In instrumental music a serious disadvantage arises from the fact that the blind performer has both to read and play with his hands; the usual plan is to read with one hand and play with the other, until the music is committed to memory. In vocal music this drawback disappears. During a performance before Her Majesty at Windsor by the pupils of the Royal Normal College and Academy of Music for the Blind, a musician present sent up a short composition in manuscript. It was dictated, quickly written, and sung from the notes with accuracy and effect by the blind choir.

Printing.—Embossed books are produced in various ways in France, generally from movable type. The printing for the English-speaking blind is done principally by the American Printing House for the Blind, Louisville, Kentucky, U.S.A.; the Howe Memorial Press, Perkins Institution for the Blind, Boston, U.S.A.; Dr Moon's Printing Establishment, 104 Queen's Road, Brighton; and the British and Foreign Blind Association, 33 Cambridge Square, London.

The American Printing House has an ingenious and very peculiar method of stereotyping from movable type; lack of space precludes a description. The press is worked by steam-power; four sheets are printed at a time, cut automatically, and delivered to the binder. The American Printing House has a subsidy of $10,000 per annum from the American government, and the institutions in the United States have the right to order books in any type; practically, however, the books are only embossed in the Boston type and New York point. The Howe Memorial Press of Boston is a steam-press with vertical action, which prints one page at a time. The stereotyping is done from movable type by electrolyzing. The cost is about double that of plates produced by the British and Foreign Blind Association. (Dr Moon's method has been referred to under types.) The British and Foreign Blind Association prints from brass plates. The frame for producing stereo-plates is very similar to the ordinary interlined writing-frame, only stronger. A sheet of brass folded upon itself is placed in the frame and embossed by means of a punch and hammer, in a similar way to that in which a style would be used in writing a single sheet of paper. The association plates are made by the blind themselves, without the intervention of movable type, and without any aid from seeing persons or skilled workmen. Both sides of the paper are printed at the same time by one pressure.

Dr Armitage, the indefatigable honorary secretary, says: 'After the most determined opposition, the Braille system, which is the foundation of all real education for the blind, has been pretty generally adopted by the schools of the United Kingdom, and the work of the association has, to a great extent, contributed to produce the same result in Germany. More books have been published in the Braille system, either in print or embossed by hand, by the association than exist in all other systems put together. As the Braille system is generally adopted for music, and care is taken not to reproduce what is already in print in other countries, blind musicians have now a very large and varied library, which is daily extending. Books embossed by hand are also rapidly multiplying, as about forty paid blind writers and about twenty lady volunteers are constantly engaged on this work. The ladies emboss books in Braille from ordinary type for the seeing, and these are copied by the blind, who generally have no intelligent reader to dictate to them. Much improvement has taken place in the construction of maps and other school apparatus.'

Writing and School Apparatus.—Even a short description of each machine or piece of apparatus is impossible, but the following list may be of use: Writing frames—Elliott Brothers, Pooley's, Levitte's, Thursfield's, Moon's, Wedgewood's, Hebold's, Guldborg's, and Klein's. Dr Moon has paper with raised lines, and the British and Foreign Blind Association corrugated cardboard. Though expensive, type-writers as constructed for the seeing, with very slight modifications, can be used with equal facility by the blind. For writing with capital and lowercase letters, Remington's is the quickest and best; for capitals only, the Caligraph; and Hall's type-writer is very convenient and less expensive, but much slower. For working arithmetical sums many ciphering-boards have been constructed, but the best is the octagonal board introduced by the Rev. William Taylor of Worcester. For school purposes good and very cheap maps are produced by the British and Foreign Blind Association.

Trades.—The handicrafts which are usually pursued in the principal workshops of the United Kingdom are the making of baskets, brushes, brooms, bedding, mats, ship-fenders, ropes, sacks, chair-caning, wood-chopping, &c.; for girls, hand and machine sewing, knitting, netting, crocheting, &c. Of all trades, pianoforte-tuning is the best; but the blind can only succeed as pianoforte-tuners when they are first-class workmen. The plan pursued by the Royal Normal College is not to recommend any tuners who cannot pass the required examinations, and obtain an official certificate.

In the United States, broom-making, under favourable conditions, proves very remunerative (see reports of Home and Workshop for Blind Men, Philadelphia). The Germans have not adopted our workshop system for the blind, but the best institutions, especially of Saxony, continue to keep a methodical supervision over their pupils, even in the country districts, after they have left the institutions. It is claimed that by this system a much larger proportion of the blind become independent members of society. Active friends of the blind in all countries would do well to acquaint themselves with the details of the Saxony system.

Professions.—A considerable number of blind gentlemen have passed through the leading universities of Britain and other countries, and have won by their talents and energy honourable positions in the church, medicine, law, politics, and commerce. In 1888 an effort was being made in the United States to establish a special national university for the blind. Such a university must either be second-rate, or very costly. Even if the nation should be willing to pay the money to make it a first-class university, such a course will be regretted by intelligent blind men all over the world. They contend that a special university for a few blind students can never give them the privileges of existing universities, with their eminent professors, their libraries, associations, spirit of culture and progress, and, above all, opportunities of coming in contact with the outside world, and forming lasting friendships with young men who will soon be busy actors in every walk of life. The blind ask not for a special university, but for scholarships in existing universities.

Music.—Music in its various branches offers the best and most lucrative employment for those among the blind who, from an early age, can have suitable educational privileges—an education which develops alike the body, mind, and musical talent. The Royal Normal College and Academy of Music for the Blind has shown by practical results what is possible in the profession of music. The education in the college is not limited to music: to a casual observer it would seem that music occupied almost a secondary place. The first aim is manly character, healthy bodies, well-cultivated and active minds, and prompt, business-like habits, which qualify its pupils for practical life. The pupils are taught swimming, skating, rowing, cycling, canoeing, gymnastics (Swedish, German, and American), military drill, and in the season a great variety of outdoor sports. The college embraces a preparatory school with classes in Kindergarten and modelling, a grammar and high school, a technical school, and an academy of music. The course of instruction includes the following departments: (1) General education, including the training of school teachers; (2) the science and practice of music, including the training of music teachers, pianists, organists, choir-masters, and vocalists; (3) technical education, including mechanical training and pianoforte-tuning.

For a hundred years noble men and women have laboured with untiring devotion for the education and training of the blind, and have desired to lift them as a class from pauperism; but the majority of mankind still bewail the sad lot of the blind, and only think of them with pity and commiseration. Even in countries where the government provides for the education of the blind, the institutions are charitable rather than educational. In a number of the American states the schools for the blind are no longer regarded as charitable institutions, are no longer under the control of the State Board of Charities, but in common with all schools for the sighted, are under the management of the Board of Education; consequently, in the United States, the blind as a class are in a better condition socially than the blind of any other country. Too much praise cannot be given to the noble philanthropists who have done so much for the blind; but the time has come when the nation ought to recognise the duty it owes to its defective classes. We need a comprehensive scheme which will not only harmonise existing agencies, but include government aid; which will at least provide employment for all the able-bodied among the blind, even if it does not make them entirely self-sustaining; which will give all the young blind who possess even ordinary ability that education and training best calculated to make them useful and independent members of society; which will grade the various institutions according to the age, capacity, and requirements of the pupils. Educational institutions should be entirely separated from workshops, but each educational institution should have a technical shop for preparatory training, and when the time arrives to decide the future career of the pupils, they should be drafted to the institution or workshop that will afford them the special privileges they require. There should be at least one special institution for feeble-minded children; at present this class of children must either be entirely neglected, or taken into the ordinary institutions, where they are not only a hindrance, but exercise a deleterious influence upon the other pupils. Such a comprehensive plan of working would minimise the cost, and make the work in all departments more effective. But such a plan can only be instituted and carried out under national control.

See Information with regard to Institutions, Societies, and Classes for the Blind in England and Wales, by H. J. Wilson, Secretary to Commission of the Gardner Trust for the Blind, 1 Poets' Corner, Westminster; A few Statistics in connection with the Blind of Scotland, by W. A. Arrol; A Guide to Institutions and Charities for the Blind, by Mansfield Turner and Wm. Harris. For full and recent information in regard to the blind of all parts of the world, see Education and Employment of the Blind, a very comprehensive book by T. R. Armitage, M.D. Much of the information of this article is derived from Dr Armitage and Mr W. B. Wait, New York, who have done more than all others to introduce an educational type that can be both read and written by the English-speaking blind. See EYE, VISION.