Brazil, the largest state of South America, and the third largest political division of the Western Continent, is greater in area than European Russia, Austria-Hungary, Germany, France, Norway and Sweden, Denmark, Italy, and Greece together. It extends from 4° 30' N. to 33° S. lat., and from 35° to 73° W. long., having a length of 2660 miles, and a breadth of 2705 miles between extreme points (Carta Geral, 1883). Its coast-line extends from Cape Orange on the north to Rio Chuy on the south, a distance of nearly 4000 miles. It borders on every state in South America except Chili, but the boundary lines with some of them are still in dispute. The area of Brazil, estimated by some as high as 3,288,000, is more likely about 3,219,000 sq. m. (3,219,134, Carta Geral), or nearly one-half of the South American continent.
Physical Features.—Brazil is a triangular-shaped country, occupying the eastern angle of the continent. It lies almost wholly within the tropics, and is still in great part unexplored and unsettled. On the north and west are the great depressions of the Amazon and Paraguay rivers, which comprise large areas of flood-plains and swamps, heavily wooded, and almost uninhabitable. The upper coast is bordered by low, alluvial bottom-lands and sandy plains, full of lakes, and in places very sterile; while the southern angle of the country is rolling campo land, bordered by a low sandy coast. Above its eastern angle a large area of coast-lands and neighbouring plateau is subject to periodical devastating droughts. The interior of the country, however, is a high plateau, with a general elevation of 1000 to 3000 feet, irregularly ridged by mountains and deeply cut by large rivers. The mountainous ranges of the maritime system form the eastern margin of this plateau, the easternmost of which is known as the Serra do Mar. This range plays an important part in the development of Brazil, for it is a costly barrier to communication with the interior, and turns nearly all the great rivers inland to find outlets through the distant Amazon and La Plata. To the west of the maritime system the elevated tablelands of the Paraná and San Francisco make great bay-like indentations in the northern and southern margins of the mountainous area, nearly uniting about the head-waters of the latter. To the westward of these plains there is a second range, nearly parallel with the maritime system, constituting the mountains of Goyaz. To the westward of these come the great elevated plains of the Amazonian and Upper Paraguayan regions. The mountains are composed almost exclusively of uplifted strata of great geological age, gneiss and metamorphic schists, with granite and other eruptive rocks. The great elevated plains are composed of horizontal strata dating from the Silurian age, so profoundly modified by the deep excavations of the valleys that this part of the country is generally, but erroneously, represented as mountainous. Brazil possesses three great river-systems—the Amazon, La Plata, and San Francisco. The Amazon and its tributaries drain fully a half of the country. To the east of the Madeira these tributaries are tableland rivers, broken by rapids and freely navigable for comparatively short distances. West of the Madeira they are lowland rivers, sluggish, bordered by extensive flood-plains, and afford free navigation for long distances. The La Plata system drains nearly one-fifth of the country through its three branches—the Paraguay, Paraná, and Uruguay. The first of these is a lowland river, freely navigable for a long distance, while the other two are tableland rivers, full of obstructions, and without free outlets for their upper-level navigation. The San Francisco is a tableland river, flowing north-east between the Goyaz and maritime mountains, and then, breaking through the latter, south-east to the Atlantic. Its tributaries are comparatively short, and nearly disappear along the lower river in the region of slight rainfall. It is not freely navigable because of the Paulo Affonso Falls. The other coast-rivers are generally short, the longest being the Parahyba, and have but little utility for navigation. The climate of Brazil varies greatly—the lowlands of the Amazon and a great part of the coast being hot, humid, and unhealthy, while the tablelands and some districts of the coast swept by the trade-winds are temperate and healthy. See AMAZON, AMERICA.
The vegetation of Brazil is luxuriant and varied. The vast forests of the Amazon contain hundreds of species of trees, draped and festooned by climbing plants, lianas, orchids, &c. Rosewood, Brazilwood, and others supply valuable timber; tropical fruits are abundant, and other products are noted in the section on commerce. The number of species of animals is also very large, but the individuals in each are comparatively few. Beasts of prey are the jaguar, puma, tiger-cat, and ocelot; the other animals include the monkey, tapir, capybara, pecary, ant-eater, sloth, and boa-constrictor. Alligators, turtles, porpoises, and manatees swarm in the Amazon; and among birds the parrots and humming-birds are especially numerous.
Population.—The population of Brazil, according to the census of 1872, was 9,930,478 of all races and classes, not including about 250,000 wild Indians. As immigration has been small, and the rate of mortality is very large, the annual rate of increase since then has probably not exceeded 1½ per cent., which gives an approximate population of 14,950,000 at the close of 1892. The proportion of non-producers is very large, the natural conditions of the country rendering labour but slightly necessary to meet the ordinary requirements of life. The institution of slavery has had much to do with this state of things, by degrading manual labour, and making idleness respectable. The African slave-trade was prohibited in 1831, but did not actually cease until 1854. In 1871 a gradual emancipation law was adopted, which declared the children born thereafter of slave mothers to be free, but obliged to serve the mother's master until the age of twenty-one years. It also provided for a fund with which to liberate slaves by purchase. The number of slaves registered in 1873 under this law was 1,540,796. Through the operations of the fund 30,014 slaves had been ransomed up to the beginning of 1887, at a total cost of Rs. 19,694,079 (<i>milreis</i>), to which the slaves contributed Rs. 1,614,405 from their own savings. The number of slaves voluntarily liberated and ransomed through private efforts was very large, and two provinces (Ceará and Amazonas) had been declared entirely free. In 1885 a second law was adopted, providing for a new registry, declaring all sexagenarians free, but with obligatory service until the age of sixty-five years, and fixing an official valuation on all slaves, to prevent further abuses of the emancipation fund. The official returns of the registry under this law (closed March 31, 1887) gave 723,419; the number of sexagenarians liberated was about 100,000, and the number enrolled for obligatory service under the law was 18,946. Finally, by the law of 13th May 1888, immediate and unconditional emancipation was decreed, although Brazil had been unable wholly to replace the system of slave labour. Immigrant labour was still limited, the poorer rural population was both untrained and opposed to habits of industry, and the labour of freed slaves had hitherto been utilised only to a limited extent. Recent events, however, have proved that kind treatment and good pay will keep a very large percentage of the freedmen on the plantations.
The Roman Catholic was the established religion under the empire; under the republic there is no state church, and all sects are tolerated. There are less than 30,000 non-Catholics in the country.
Education is compulsory in several provinces, but is still in a very backward condition; 84 per cent. of the population was returned as illiterate at the last census. The language is Portuguese, with dialectal varieties, discussed by Vasconcellos in O dialecto Brasileiro (Oporto, 1883); and the literature, which dates back to the 16th century, will fall to be noticed under PORTUGAL.
Government.—Under the empire the government of Brazil was a constitutional monarchy whose executive governed through a cabinet of seven members—empire, finance, war, marine, justice, foreign affairs, and agriculture—and through a president in each of the twenty provinces of the empire. The executive power was vested in the emperor and his cabinet, the legislature in a General Assembly of two houses—the Senate and Chamber of Deputies—and the judicial in a council of state (advisory only), a supreme tribunal, twelve district courts, and the usual subordinate courts. At the revolution of 1889 the empire became a republic, and in 1891 the new constitution was proclaimed by a national congress convoked by the provisional government. The United States of Brazil are a federative republic, each of the old provinces and the federal district forming an organised state administering its own affairs at its own expense, and having distinct administrative, legislative, and judicial bodies. But the federal government takes charge of national defence, public order, and federal law, as well as customs, stamps, postal arrangements, and the issue of bank notes. The national congress, the legislative authority, consists of a Chamber of Deputies and a Senate, which meet annually; and the president's sanction is required to new laws. No member of congress can accept any paid office except diplomatic or military; nor can he hold contracts under government. Neither deputies nor senators can be ministers of state; both are paid. Deputies, who must have been citizens of the republic for four years, are elected by the direct vote of the several states for three years, in the proportion of one to 70,000 of the population. Senators are chosen by the state legislatures, three for each state, and for a term of nine years. The president has supreme command of army and navy, power to declare war and make peace (within certain defined limits), appoints and dismisses ministers, and with the assent of congress, ambassadors and the judges of the Supreme Federal Court. All citizens of twenty-one years duly enrolled exercise the franchise, except illiterates, beggars, soldiers in service, and monastics under vows.
The army of Brazil consists of 30,000 men, besides 15,000 gendarmerie. The navy comprises 60 vessels of all classes (including two powerful turret-ships and 10 other armour-clads), manned by 8900 officers and men (including marines).
Finance.—The revenue of Brazil has varied from 195,253,406 milreis in 1890 to 346,164,000 milreis in 1899; the expenditure, from 220,645,844 milreis in 1890 to 346,000,423 milreis in 1899. Of the revenue for 1899, 222,000,000 milreis were derived from import duties, 45,080,000 milreis from railways, and 12,900,000 milreis from post and telegraphs; the other items being stamps, lottery taxes, tobacco duties, and various. The public debt in 1898 was 2,000,277,691 milreis. The milreis of 1000 reis is of the par value of 2s. 2½d.; but the actual value of the paper milreis fluctuates greatly. In 1891 it was 12½d.; in 1896, between 8d. and 10d.; in 1898, 5¾d.; and in 1900, 7¼d.
Commerce.—The total value of the exports from Brazil in 1897, exclusive of specie, was 831,806,918 milreis; and of the imports, 671,603,280 milreis. The industries are confined to agriculture, mining, and forest products, manufactures being but slightly developed. Stock-raising has totally failed to keep pace with the domestic consumption of jerked-beef, which is largely imported. The coast fisheries have also been neglected, although Brazil is a large consumer of codfish. The forest products are rubber, maté, nuts, cocoa, medicinal plants, cabinet and dye woods, &c.—the first ranking third in importance as an article of export. Of agricultural products, coffee occupies the first place, and furnishes about two-thirds of the total exports of the whole empire. The Rio and Santos export in 1886–87 was 5,871,170 bags of 60 kilogrammes each. The normal export from the whole empire is 6½ to 7 millions of bags. Sugar ranks second in importance as an export, and is now receiving special encouragement from the state, in the grant of interest guarantees on central usines. The production of cotton and tobacco has considerably decreased, and that of tapioca has nearly disappeared. Rice, maize, and many other products are easily grown, but have been overshadowed by coffee and sugar, and to some extent discouraged by the high cost of internal transportation. In colonial times the mining industries attracted much attention, and yielded large results. They are now comparatively unimportant, and are restricted in development by unfavourable mining laws. Gold and diamonds are found in Minas Geraes, Paraná, and Bahia, but the annual production at present is not large. Iron ores of superior quality exist in several provinces, but there are no large mines in operation, the absence of coal being a serious obstacle to the development of this important industry. The productions and commerce of Brazil cannot be treated briefly and comprehensively, because of the total lack of reliable statistics. There are no trustworthy official reports on these matters, the tables given being so defective and full of clerical errors as to render them valueless. An official report for 1884–85 gives the aggregate value of the agricultural, grazing, and extractive products for that year at about Rs.237,000,000. The total value of imports in 1890 was estimated at Rs.260,100,000; that of exports at Rs.317,822,000$, of which coffee alone contributed more than half. The imports from Britain in 1892 had a value of £7,910,000, the exports to Britain £3,512,000. The mistaken policy of levying export duties on domestic products, and heavy import duties on foreign goods, has done much to restrict production and commerce. Moreover, the system of protection is even gaining ground, and a few industries have already been established on the encouragement given. As no land-tax, which would be opposed by the great landed proprietors, is levied, the loss of revenue through any effort to protect national industries will certainly lead to serious financial difficulties. It should be added that the inhabitants of the southern provinces of the empire are broadly distinguished by their energy from the more indolent northerners. It is in the southern provinces that the numerous German colonies (comprising some 220,000 Germans) are mostly established.
Steam communication with Europe was opened in 1850, and telegraphic communication in 1874. The first railway was opened in 1854; Brazil now possesses a total extension of 8650 miles under traffic, and 4800 miles in construction. Of these, 1580 miles under traffic belong to the state. There are 10,000 miles of telegraph lines in Brazil. Trade has been seriously hindered by the insurrections in Rio Grande, San Paulo, and Rio Janeiro (q.v.) in 1891–93.
History.—As early as 1480, expeditions sailed from Bristol in search of the island of Brasylle (for the name see BRAZIL-WOOD), rumoured to exist in the western seas; Brazil was discovered on 26th January 1500, by Vicente Yañez Pinzon, who landed at Cape St Augustine, near Pernambuco, and then followed the coast north to the Orinoco. In the same year a Portuguese expedition to the East Indies, under Pedro Alvarez Cabral, discovered the Brazilian coast near Porto Seguro on 25th April (April 22, Cazal). Cabral took formal possession, and named his new discovery 'Terra da Vera Cruz.' Two Portuguese expeditions were sent out in 1501 and 1503, the first exploring the coast from 5° to 32° S. lat., and the second planting a colony and bringing back a rich cargo of Brazil-wood (q.v.), which gave a name to Portugal's new possession.
In 1530 the Portuguese government resolved upon the definite settlement of Brazil, and the plan adopted was its division into hereditary captaincies, which should be granted to private individuals, with ample powers for the founding of colonies on their own account. Many of the earliest colonies failed through lack of means, and from inability to hold their ground against the natives. In 1567 a Huguenot colony, established on the bay of Rio de Janeiro twelve years before, was overthrown by the Portuguese, who then founded the present capital of Brazil. Portugal and her colonies having become dependencies of Spain, a squadron sent out by the Dutch in 1623 to seize Brazil captured the colonial capital, Bahia. The Dutch lost the city in 1625, but in 1630 they captured Pernambuco, which, with several neighbouring places, they held for over twenty years. In 1640 Portugal regained her independence, and in 1654 her former possessions, but without any definite settlement of her boundary disputes with Spain. To strengthen her claim to the territory on the eastern shore of the La Plata, the town of Colonia, opposite Buenos Ayres, was founded in 1679; this was the beginning of a bitter struggle for the present republic of Uruguay, lasting nearly 150 years, until the independence of that territory was formally recognised in 1827 by Dom Pedro I. The discovery of gold in Minas Geraes in 1693, and of diamonds in 1729, gave a new impetus to the growth of the country, one result of which was the removal of the colonial capital from Bahia to Rio de Janeiro. The cultivation of cotton, tobacco, and sugar-cane had already attained great prominence and prosperity in the northern captaincies. The colonial system of Portugal, however, was one of selfish exclusion and greedy extortion. The colony was rigidly closed to foreigners, industry was burdened by restrictions and monopolies, the taxes were farmed out, the authorities were arbitrary and grasping, the administration of justice was slow and corrupt, printing was forbidden, the people were grossly ignorant, turbulent, and immoral, and internal communication was slow and difficult. In 1808 the royal family of Portugal was expelled by the French and took refuge in Brazil, and the very first act of Dom João VI. was to open Brazilian ports to foreign commerce. He then removed various restrictions on domestic industries, founded a printing-office and library, created new courts, and opened various schools and public institutions. All these acts greatly stimulated the growth of the country. In 1821 he returned to Portugal, leaving his eldest son in Brazil as prince-regent. Personal ambition, and the advice of men opposed to government from Lisbon, led the young prince to declare for Brazilian independence, 7th September 1822. He was proclaimed and crowned emperor—as Dom Pedro I.—before the end of the year, the small Portuguese force in the country being quickly and easily expelled. The constitution was ratified and sworn to early in 1825, and some amendments were added in 1835. The new empire, however, did not start smoothly, nor was the reign of Dom Pedro I. a fortunate one. Vexed with the opposition encountered, he in 1831 voluntarily abdicated in favour of his eldest son, and withdrew to Portugal. During the next nine years Brazil was governed by regencies, but in 1840 a popular agitation led to the declaration of the young prince's majority, at fifteen years of age, and to his coronation the following year as Dom Pedro II. The reign was one of almost unbroken peace, interrupted by two wars—one with Buenos Ayres in 1852, and the other with Paraguay in 1865–70. At the revolution of November 1889, the empire became a republic, and Dom Pedro and his family exiled. The ex-emperor (see PEDRO II.) died in 1891.
See A Journey in Brazil, by Professor and Mrs Agassiz (1870); Hartt, Geology of Brazil (Boston, 1870); A. R. Wallace, Travels on the Amazon (1870); Bates, The Naturalist on the Amazon (1873); Mulhall, Handbook of Brazil (Buenos Ayres, 1877); Fletcher and Kidder, Brazil and the Brazilians (9th ed. Philadelphia, 1879); H. H. Smith, Brazil, the Amazon, and the Coast (1880); Sellin, Das Kaiserreich Brasilien (1882); Zöller, Die Deutschen im brasilischen Urwald (1883); Wells, Three Thousand Miles through Brazil (1886); and for the history, Southey's History of Brazil (1810–19), and the Portuguese works of Costancio and Pereira da Silva.