Breviary. By this word Roman Catholics understand the book which contains all the ordinary and daily services of their church except (a) those connected with the celebration of the Eucharist, which are contained in the Missal, and (b) those for special occasions, such as baptisms, marriages, ordinations, funerals, &c., which are contained in the Ritual or Pontifical, according as they fall within the sphere of ordinary priests or of bishops. In the Established Church of England, therefore, the breviary would be exactly represented by a Prayer-book containing, after the preface, tables, &c., the morning and evening prayer, litany, Athanasian creed, collects, psalter, and all the lessons for every day in the year, with the addition of a complete set of hymns for the different occasions. What is called a 'Church Service,' with Hymns Ancient and Modern bound in, is, in fact, a breviary, only differing from the contents of the Latin one in the fact that it provides only for Sundays and holidays, that the hymns are more or less left to selection, and that it contains the Eucharistic and occasional offices in addition. The word breviary is colloquially applied by Latin-Catholics to the corresponding portion of the services of the Oriental churches—e.g. one may hear the remark that the services of the Greek breviary are very long, or those of the Coptic breviary very unchanging—but the present article deals only with Latin breviaries.
The word itself signifies an abbreviation or summary, and is used to indicate that the book is a compilation designed to obviate the necessity of using several different books in the same service, that is to say, a separate book for the prayers, a hymn-book, a Bible from which to read the lessons and Psalms, copies of the Fathers from which to read their homilies, &c. An Anglican Church Service is a compilation on exactly the same principle and for the same object, as well as very similar in contents. The origin of the different hours of prayer during the day, which is undoubtedly older than Christianity, and adopted by the church from the synagogue, is beyond the scope of this article, as are also the changes and modifications which they have undergone. The compilation called the breviary is believed to owe its origin to Gregory VII. in the 11th century. It underwent several changes under succeeding popes, and in 1536 Francis, Cardinal de Quiñones, a Spaniard, published at Rome a reformed breviary which had the approval of Clement VII. and Paul III. It was, at least in the earlier editions, perhaps too sweeping in its changes, but is of great merit, insuring the reading of the whole Book of Psalms every week, and of almost all the New Testament and a great part of the Old every year. It is upon this work that the daily service of the English Established Church is largely modelled, some parts of the preface being embodied entire in that of the Book of Common Prayer. The use of this breviary was never made compulsory, but while it was permitted as a substitute for the unreformed breviary, it was very widely adopted both for public and private worship. It was, however, considered that its services were both too short and too divergent from ancient custom, and Pius V., in conformity with a decree of the Council of Trent, issued in 1568 a reformed edition of the old Roman breviary, which he imposed absolutely upon all the Latin churches, to the exclusion of the breviary of Quiñones, and of all other breviaries which did not possess an antiquity of 200 years. This breviary was further altered by Clement VIII. and Urban VIII., the latter of whom, with deplorable taste, made a series of changes in the texts of the hymns which has been most disastrous to both the literary merit and the historical interest of these poems. The breviary has since undergone many other modifications, chiefly by the addition to the calendar of great numbers of feast-days in honour of saints, to such an extent that the ordinary service of a weekday became very uncommon. Finally, in 1883 Pope Leo XIII. permitted, though not commanded, the substitution for the week-day service, upon almost every day in the year; of a voluntary office of a festal character according to the day of the week. The state to which the practical use of the breviary has thus been reduced, especially by the virtual abrogation of the weekly reading of the whole Book of Psalms, which is, in theory, its main intention, is now acknowledged on all hands to call for a new and sweeping reform. This reform will probably follow, at least in this respect, the lines of the reformed breviary of Cardinal de Quiñones. It may be regarded as imminent, and had the sittings of the Vatican Council been continued, would very likely have taken place before now.
The exception made by Pius V. would have spared some at least of the old English breviaries, but owing chiefly to the English Roman Catholic clergy being educated abroad in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries, their use has become extinct. Great numbers of new breviaries were, however, brought into use in France in different dioceses in the 17th and 18th centuries. These are generally works compiled with great care and learning. They are mainly distinguished for an exclusive use of scriptural phrases, an intense nationalism, the substitution for early and medieval hymns of compositions written in imitation of Horace by French scholars, and certain indications of a leaning to the doctrines of Jansenism. They are now almost, if not entirely, extinct, the Roman breviary having been adopted in their stead. The principal Latin breviaries at present in use, other than the Roman, are the Monastic, used by all the male and female disciples of St Benedict—i.e. by all monks and nuns properly so called; the Dominican, used by all disciples of St Dominic; the Ambrosian, in the ecclesiastical province of Milan; and the Mozarabic, the original national rite of Spain, in use in part of the cathedral and city of Toledo.
What here follows will relate only to the Roman breviary. It is to be observed at the same time, that wherever the Roman breviary has been introduced, it has been subjected to additions to the calendar and other changes, so as to give it a local or national colour. In England, for instance, there are about seventy days in the year—without reckoning others within octaves, alterations in importance, or changes of date—upon which the service differs from the text of the Roman breviary.
After the general rubrics, tables to find Easter, calendar, &c., the body of the breviary is divided into five parts. The first of these consists of the Book of Psalms arranged in sections, with the daily prayers and some hymns, for the different services of the day and week. The first of these is Matins, which properly belongs to midnight, but is usually said in Italy about 7.30 or 8 A.M. In France, on the contrary, it is usual to forestall it on the preceding evening. It consists of Psalm xc. (Venite) and a hymn, followed by one or three sections called Nocturnæ or Watches of the Night. On Sundays there are three of these, the first containing twelve psalms, and each of the others three. At the end of each is read a lesson, divided into three portions, whence the whole are counted as nine. The first reading is from Scripture, the second from one of the Fathers, and the third from one of the Fathers, on the gospel which will later be read at mass. The Te Deum usually follows. On week-days there is only one Nocturna of twelve psalms, and one lesson (three), all from Scripture. The second daily service is Lauds or the Morning Praises, theoretically proper to sunrise. It consists of four psalms, a Scripture canticle, Psalms cxlvi., clix., and cl., a hymn, the Benedictus or Thanksgiving of Zacharias (Luke, i. 68–79), and prayers. The succeeding services, or Little Day Hours, are Prime or the First Hour (6 A.M.), Terce or the Third Hour (9 A.M.), Sext or the Sixth Hour (noon), and None or the Ninth Hour (3 P.M.). They are all alike, consisting of a hymn and some sections of Psalm cxix. (Vulgate cxviii.), followed by a prayer. Prime differs a little from the others, being susceptible of some extra and changing psalms, and on Sundays of the creed of St Athanasius, and containing special prayers for the morning; in choirs a lesson is also read at it taken from the Martyrology. Vespers or Evening is theoretically proper to sunset, and is reckoned to begin the next day, according to the eastern reckoning—‘The evening and the morning were the — day.’ It consists of five psalms, which vary according to the day of the week, a hymn, the Magnificat or Thanksgiving of the Blessed Virgin (Luke, i. 46–55), and prayers. Completorium or Compline, the completing service, belongs theoretically to 9 P.M., and is a supplication for protection during the night. It is always the same, consisting of the general confession, four unvarying psalms, a hymn, the Nunc Dimittis or Song of Simeon (Luke, ii. 29–32), prayers, and a Commemoration of the Blessed Virgin. The unchanging character of this and of the Little Hours conveys no idea of the practical monotony from day to day. This arises from the multiplication of festivals of saints already spoken of. These have, practically speaking, always got special psalms, which are always the same at lauds, and vary very little at vespers and matins. Hence, as a matter of fact, about fifty or sixty psalms are repeated constantly, and the others rarely or never.
The second part of the breviary consists of what is called the Proprium de Tempore. This means the whole service for Sundays and week-days as dependent upon Christmas and Easter. It contains the homilies of the Fathers, hymns, &c. for the whole year, as far as so dependent, but is mainly occupied by the course of daily scripture-reading. This consists of selected extracts averaging about 20 verses a day. Roughly speaking, Isaiah is read in Advent (the three or four weeks preceding Christmas), the epistles of St Paul from the Epiphany (January 6) till Septuagesima (the ninth Sunday before Easter), when Genesis is begun, but broken off at chapter xiv. on Shrove Tuesday. Homilies, not Scripture, are read in Lent, except on feasts of saints, and then the Scripture is special, but Genesis continues to be read on Sundays, and a small portion of Jeremiah and Lamentations in the last fortnight. A week after Easter the Catholic Epistles and Apocalypse are begun and read till Whitsunday. A week after Whitsunday, Samuel and Kings are begun, and read till the beginning of August. At that date Proverbs are begun, and followed by Ecclesiastes, Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, Job, Tobit, Judith, Esther, both books of Maccabees, and the rest of the Prophets. The weakness of this arrangement, besides the scantiness and scrappiness of the extracts, is in the omission of so much, including entire books and the greater part of the Pentateuch. It forms, however, a kind of imperfect epitome of scriptural history, and a limited course of scriptural reading.
The third part of the breviary consists of what is called the Proprium Sanctorum, or special offices of saints. This consists of whatever is special to any day fixed by the day of the month. The greater part of it as regards bulk is occupied by summaries of saints' lives, exactly like articles in a biographical dictionary. This is certainly the weakest part of the breviary, and is accordingly always selected as the point for controversial attack. Although sometimes drawn up with care, and often altered—as has been done by Leo XIII. among others—to keep them abreast of historical criticism, the biographical notices are open to the charge of occasional inaccuracies in matters of fact. A notion sometimes obtains among Protestants that Roman Catholics are obliged to believe these biographies. This is wholly baseless. No such idea exists even as a superstition. As these notices embrace the lives of a very great number of persons of religious eminence, of all nations, ages, and conditions, they form a sort of imperfect epitome of church history, just as the Scripture readings form one of Scripture.
The fourth part of the breviary is called the Commune Sanctorum. These are a series of twelve offices for festivals of saints according to the class to which he or she may belong. They are for (1) the eves of apostles; (2) the feasts of any martyrs, including apostles, within the season from Easter to Pentecost; (3) apostles and evangelists; (4) a single male martyr; (5) a group of several martyrs; (6) a canonised bishop not a martyr, technically styled confessor, as having confessed Christ before men, though not by death; (7) a confessor not a bishop—i.e. a priest or layman; (8) doctors of the church—i.e. certain eminent theologians, but this differs little from 6 or 7; (9) virgins, divided into martyred and not martyred—the latter are mainly canonised nuns; (10) other women; (11) dedication festivals of churches; (12) the Blessed Virgin Mary. The Commune Sanctorum is the most used of any part of the breviary. In fact, the service from day to day usually consists of 4, 6, 7, and 9, with occasional changes to 2, 3, 5, and 12. All these have special psalms, which differ little, 6, 7, and 8 being absolutely the same, as also 9, 10, and 12, and 2 having the psalms of 3, 4, or 5. The festal office is a good deal shorter than others, a circumstance which probably accounts for a good deal of its multiplication. There are three Nocturnæ at matins, with only three psalms in each. At the end of the first are read the lessons from Scripture, which are usually those of the day from the Proprium de Tempore, as only festivals of some importance have special Scripture lessons; at the end of the second is read the biographical notice; at the end of the third, a homily on the gospel. These lessons of the third Nocturn, which are often most striking and powerful passages from the greatest writers of the early church, vary a good deal, and form, along with those of the Proprium de Tempore, a sort of imperfect epitome of theology, as those of the first Nocturn do of Scripture, and those of the second, of church history.
The fifth part of the breviary consists of extra services, the principal of which are the vespers (placebo), and matins, and lauds (dirge) of the dead, and the Little Office of the Blessed Virgin Mary. None of these extra services are ever obligatory, except that of the dead on All-Souls' Day. It is funereal in character, and is mainly used at funerals, anniversaries of deaths, &c. The Little Office of the Blessed Virgin is a sort of abbreviated festal office of the Blessed Virgin, with only one Nocturn. It contains 31 psalms daily, with 4 canticles, hymns, prayers, &c., and is very widely used by itself among the laity and the active religious orders.
Notwithstanding the weaknesses of its scriptural course of reading and its biographical notices, and the practical monotony caused by the multiplication of festal offices, the breviary forms a marvellous mine of powerful and tender religious thought, amassed by the devotional experience of ages. It must be remembered that at every separate service, nearly all, or by far the largest part of the matter used, is the language of Scripture, a circumstance which invests the office with great grandeur and vitality. The readings form a sort of storehouse, albeit imperfect, of scriptural, historical, and theological knowledge. Exquisitely chosen quotations or adaptations of Scripture also enter largely into what are among the most striking passages of the breviary—viz. the Invitatories or exhortations to worship joined to the Venite, the Antiphons or anthems attached to the psalms and canticles, the Short Responsories which precede the prayers at the little hours and compline, and above all, the responsories by which each section of the lesson at the end of each nocturn is followed. These are always poetical, generally beautiful, and not unfrequently rise to the sublime.
The rules for arranging the service for every day, and especially for uniting and harmonising the Proprium de Tempore with the Proprium Sanctorum, are contained in the general rubrics, and fill 37 chapters. Being printed in black, with the quotations and technical words in red, these pages present a motley appearance, which has obtained for them the technical name of the Pica or Pie (cf. magpie, piebald). The rules are so complicated that it would be almost impossible for any one to find the service for himself upon the spur of the moment, upon any given day. This difficulty is accordingly met by the publication in every separate country or diocese of a sort of annual almanac, called the Ordo Recitandi Divini Officii, which contains under every day, clothed in a mass of technical contractions, minute directions as to what is to be read.
The breviary is sometimes to be met with in one bulky volume, in which case it is called a Totum; sometimes, especially in Spain, in two; but most frequently in four, for spring, summer, autumn, and winter, in which case each volume contains the Psalms, a quarter of the Proprium de Tempore, about a third of the Proprium Sanctorum, and the whole of the Commune Sanctorum and the additional matter.
The duty of publicly joining in or privately reading aloud—i.e. so as to utter every word with the lips—the whole of the breviary services every day, is incumbent upon all clerks in holy orders, all members of religious orders, male or female, and every person holding a benefice (such as a prebend) to which attendance in choir is normally attached. The serving brethren or sisters in religious orders, and the members of active religious orders, such as sisters of charity, form an exception, but these are always bound to some shorter substitute, such as the Little Office of the Blessed Virgin, a similar office in praise of the Blessed Sacrament, or the like. In all properly conducted cathedral and collegiate churches, the service is performed publicly every day with surpliced choir, &c., as in similar institutions in the English Established Church; the ceremonial is also similar, except that, if the service is choral, incense is offered during the Benedictus and Magnificat. For this purpose the services are usually massed together, as matins and lauds at 7.30 or 8 A.M., prime, terce (after which high mass is sung), sext, and none, at 9.30 or 10, and vespers and compline at 4. The time consumed varies, principally according to the amount of music used. A person reading alone and pronouncing rapidly can read the whole of the services of the day through in about two hours, or even less. In the cathedral of Seville, on the other hand, where the entire daily service is sung with the utmost pomp and solemnity, and with the addition of generally two, often three, and sometimes four high masses, as many as eight hours are often spent in choir.
The use of the breviary as a book of private devotion by laymen has become rare since the invention of printing has led to the multiplication of devotional works of different kinds, but at present seems to show some tendency again to increase, and it has always been a common custom to sing vespers or compline, at least on Sundays, in parochial and other public churches. For this reason, most Roman Catholic manuals of devotion contain compline and the more common psalms of vespers. Spanish prayer-books usually contain the ordinary forms of all the services except matins; and in that country the singing of such services in the parochial churches, and the participation of the laity in them, is more common than elsewhere. This seems to have been the case in England before the Reformation, the laity also habitually attending matins. The Parisian breviary of 1737 was translated into French under the title of the Breviaire Français; and there is likewise a French version of the Roman breviary. The latter has also been translated into German; and an English version was published by the present writer in 1879. See Pierre Batiffol, Histoire du Breviaire Romain (1893).