Canada

Canada. The derivation of the name Canada is obscure, but it is believed to have its origin in an Indian word kannatha, meaning a village or collection of huts. The supposition is that Jacques Cartier, hearing the term used by the Indians in connection with their settlements, applied it to the whole of the country. Canada originally comprised the extensive range of territory as far west as the Mississippi, including the great lakes, which was ceded to Great Britain by France in 1763. Subsequently, at the termination of the War of Independence, it was limited to the region now occupied by the provinces of Ontario and Quebec, described prior to 1867 as Upper and Lower Canada respectively. What is known as the Dominion of Canada is a confederation of the colonies of British North America, constituted in 1867 by the British North America Act of that year (30 Vict. chap. 3). Upper and Lower Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick were the first to unite under the provisions of that statute. The Hudson Bay Territory was acquired from the company of that name, a portion of it formed into the province of Manitoba, the remainder designated the North-west Territories, and both were admitted into the confederation in 1870. Part of the North-west Territories was subsequently divided into districts as follows: In 1876 Keewatin; in 1882 Assiniboia, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and Athabasca. In 1871 British Columbia, and in 1873 Prince Edward Island, became parties to the Union, which now includes the whole of British North America, except Newfoundland.

Geography and Physical Aspect.—Canada is bounded on the N. by the Arctic Ocean, on the W. by the Pacific and Alaska, on the E. by Newfoundland and the Atlantic, and on the S. by the United States. Both the Atlantic and Pacific shores abound in deep indentations forming magnificent harbours and sheltered bays. On the Atlantic the principal bay is the Bay of Fundy, remarkable for its high and rushing tide, the water rising from 12 to 70 feet; there is also the Hudson Bay, connected with the Atlantic by Hudson Straits, really an inland sea with an area of 350,000 sq. mi., and the Gulf of St Lawrence, 80,000 sq. m. in extent. The most striking physical features of Canada are the Rocky Mountains, the Laurentian Range, and the chain of immense fresh-water lakes. Hills of no great height skirt the coasts of Nova Scotia, Cape Breton, and Labrador, and the southern bank of the St Lawrence is fringed by the Notre Dame Mountains (also called the Shickshock Mountains), a spur of the Appalachians, the highest parts of which (4000 feet) are in Gaspé. The Laurentian Range extends along the north side of the St Lawrence, the Ottawa River, and then stretches away to Lake Superior and the north, the length of the range being about 3500 miles. It forms the watershed between Hudson Bay and the St Lawrence, and varies in height from 1000 to 3000 feet. The eastern portions of Canada are generally well timbered, and the same remark applies to British Columbia, and to the North-west Territories north of the Saskatchewan. Westward of the Red River, however, between the 49th and 55th parallels of latitude, there is an immense fertile plain, suitable for general agriculture and grazing (the eastern end being about 800 feet, and the western about 3000 feet, above the level of the sea), extending nearly to the Rocky Mountains. This range consists of triple chains with valleys between; the most easterly has the greatest elevation near the 52d parallel, the highest peaks being Mount Brown (16,000), Mount Murchison (15,789), and Mount Hooker (15,700). The average height of the chain is from 7000 to 8000 feet. Canada is well watered, the map presenting a network of lakes and rivers. The system of the St Lawrence alone, with the great lakes Superior, Huron, Michigan, Erie, and Ontario (between the last are the celebrated falls of Niagara), drains an area in Canada of 330,000 sq. m. (see North America in 'Stanford's Compendium'—United States, by Hayden—Canada, by Selwyn). The area of the lakes is about 90,000 sq. m.—Lake Superior is 630 feet above the sea-level, and Lake Ontario, 234 feet—and with their outlet they form the greatest fresh-water way in the world. Other important lakes are Winnipeg (9000 sq. m.), Winnipegosis (3000), Manitoba (2100), Lake of the Woods (1500), Great Slave (12,000), Great Bear (10,000), and Athabasca (3000).

Next to the St Lawrence, the chief rivers are the Saskatchewan and the Winnipeg, flowing into Lake Winnipeg, and the Nelson, flowing from it into Hudson Bay; the Assiniboine and the Red River, which join their waters to flow into Lake Winnipeg; the Albany and the Churchill, emptying into Hudson Bay; the Athabasca and the Peace rivers, flowing into Lake Athabasca, and the Slave River, from it into Great Slave Lake; the Mackenzie, fed from both the Great Slave and the Great Bear lakes, and emptying into the Arctic Ocean; the Fraser and Thompson, in British Columbia, emptying into the Pacific; and in the Eastern provinces, the Ottawa, chief tributary of the St Lawrence, itself fed by the Gatineau and Matawan; the Saguenay, emptying Lake St John into the St Lawrence; and the St John, which flows into the Bay of Fundy, after a course of 500 miles in New Brunswick, which it partly separates from the State of Maine. The principal islands of the Dominion are: on the east, Cape Breton, Prince Edward and Magdalen islands, and Anticosti, in the Gulf of St Lawrence; and on the west coast, Vancouver Island and Queen Charlotte Islands. Lying along the north, in the great Arctic Archipelago are immense islands, all of which, excepting Greenland, belong to Canada (Imperial Order in Council, 1st September 1880). See AMERICA.

Climate.—The cold in winter and the heat in summer are greater than in Great Britain, but the climate is a healthy one. This is demonstrated by the returns of the military stations, and by the general health and physique of the resident population. As to the seasons, spring commences two or three weeks later than in England, but the conditions for the rapid growth of produce—warm sunshine and a sufficiency of rain—are so favourable that the crops of the two countries are about equally advanced by the middle of July. The spring consists of two months, April and May. Summer includes June, July, August, and September; autumn, October and part of November. On an average, the winter may be said to continue from the middle of November to the end of March, or about four and a half months. Between Manitoba and the North-west and Ontario there is a few days' difference in favour of the latter. The same may be said of Ontario as compared with Quebec and the maritime provinces. British Columbia probably possesses the finest climate in North America. It has all the advantages of that of England without its disadvantages. The following figures show the extreme temperatures in the principal towns of the different provinces in 1884, the latest official figures available:

The test of the thermometer, however, gives a very exaggerated impression of the severity of the Canadian winter. The humidity or the dryness of the atmosphere really decides the comfort or discomfort, the healthiness or unhealthiness of a climate. In Canada, although there are extreme temperatures, the air is always dry, bracing, and exhilarating, and consequently the country is considered a very healthy one. In the spring and summer wild flowers are as common as in England. In August and September wild fruits and delicate ferns abound; all the grain and fruit crops grown in England flourish; and many species raised in England under glass, such as grapes, peaches, melons, and tomatoes, ripen in southern Canada in the open air.

Area.—The area of the different provinces and districts of Canada is as follows: Ontario, 144,600 sq. m. (not including some disputed territory); Quebec, 193,355; Nova Scotia, 21,731; New Brunswick, 27,322; Prince Edward Island, 2133; Manitoba, 60,500; British Columbia, 390,344; Provisional Districts, Assiniboia, 89,700; Saskatchewan, 106,700; Alberta, 106,500; Athabasca, 105,500; remaining territory, 2,144,937; total, 3,393,320. The area of the great lakes, if added, would probably increase the total to about 3,500,000 sq. m. For purposes of comparison, it may be stated that Canada is nearly as large as the whole of Europe, and about 600,000 sq. m. larger than the United States without Alaska.

Population.—In 1800 the population of Canada was estimated at 240,000, without counting Indians: (1825) 581,920; (1851) 1,842,265; (1861) 3,090,561; (1871, after the formation of the Dominion) 3,635,024. In 1881 and 1891 it was as follows:

Of the total in 1891, 2,460,471 were males, and 2,372,768 females. The increase in 1871–81 was 18·97 per cent.; in 1881–91 only 11·74 per cent. over the whole country (though in Manitoba it was 144·95 per cent., and in British Columbia 98·49 per cent.). In 1891, 3,428,265 were English speaking, 1,404,974 French speaking. Eighty-six per cent. of the population in 1891 were natives of British North America—in all, 4,185,877; those of Irish descent coming next in number after those of French stock, then the English element, and last the Scottish. There were 475,456 natives of the United Kingdom, 13,776 natives of other parts of the empire: 80,915 were natives of the United States, 27,752 of Germany; the balance including, besides Indians, Africans, Swiss, Chinese, Scandinavians, Italians, Russians, Spanish and Portuguese, and

Icelanders. The census of the Dominion is recorded every ten years, but a supplementary census of the North-west Territories was taken in 1885, and of Manitoba in 1886. The population of Assiniboia, Saskatchewan, and Alberta in 1885 was 48,362. No comparisons can safely be made between these figures and those of the census returns for the North-west Territories in 1881, as the latter were largely estimated, and were, moreover, applicable to the whole of the territories. The population of Manitoba in 1886 was 108,640, as compared with 65,954 in 1881—an increase of 64.7 per cent. in the five years.

English is generally spoken in the Dominion, but in some parts of the province of Quebec, French is the only language understood. In the Dominion, Quebec, and Manitoba parliaments, members may address the House in either language. In Quebec province the speeches are usually French. Official notices are published in French, with or without an English translation. In the streets of Quebec the policemen do not understand questions in English, much less reply to them. The French spoken by the habitants, as the French-Canadians are called, is a patois which in many respects resembles the French of the 17th century more closely than the French of modern Paris. The songs of the French-Canadians, especially boat-songs, are many and interesting.

Indians.—In 1881 there were 108,547 Indians in Canada; in 1891, 121,638. One-fourth are in the Eastern provinces, one-half in Manitoba and the North-west, and one-fourth in British Columbia. In the older provinces very few of the Indians are of pure blood. They have made much progress towards civilisation, and are principally engaged in industrial and agricultural occupations, although many still follow hunting and fishing as a means of livelihood. The franchise was, in 1886, extended to those who possessed the necessary property qualifications. In the North-west Territories and British Columbia the Indians are located upon reserves, are being instructed in agricultural and other work by officers of the government, and own implements and live-stock to a considerable value. Endeavours are also being made to encourage the education of the children by the establishment of schools. The Minister of the Interior is Superintendent-general of Indian affairs.

Religion.—There is no state church in Canada, and the utmost religious liberty prevails. According to the census of 1891, the population included 1,992,017 Catholics (of whom two-thirds were in Quebec); 646,059 Church of England; 755,326 Presbyterians; 847,765 Methodists; 302,565 Baptists; 63,982 Lutherans; 28,157 Congregationalists. In Ontario the Presbyterians are by much the most numerous denomination, in British Columbia the Anglicans; in Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island, as well as Quebec, the Roman Catholics.

Education.—Long before school boards were established in Great Britain, Canada was in the enjoyment of free and unsectarian education. In 1846 compulsory taxation for the support of public schools was for the first time embodied in the law of Canada. It was also adopted subsequently by the other provinces. The details differ somewhat in the various provinces, but, generally speaking, the system, which is more or less compulsory, is as follows: Every township is divided into sections sufficiently large for a school. Trustees are elected to manage the affairs, and the expenses are defrayed by local rates and provincial government grants. In districts where the inhabitants are strongly divided in their religious opinions, and mixed schools are not possible, the law enables separate ones to be provided. This applies only to

Ontario, Quebec, and Manitoba. Teachers are trained at normal schools at the public expense. For those who can afford it—and the cost is very small—there are schools of a higher grade, managed also by trustees. At these, as well as at many excellent private establishments, a classical education is given, and pupils are prepared for the professions. There are also colleges and universities open to youths prepared in the lower schools. Toronto, Kingston, Montreal, and other places have schools of medicine, and the leading religious denominations have institutions at which young men are prepared for the ministry. For the higher education of girls there are also schools. In no country in the world is good education more generally diffused than in Canada, and the highest prizes the country offers are open to all, rich and poor alike. The principal universities are, in the order in which they were founded, as follows: Dalhousie (N.S.), 1820; McGill (Que.), 1821; New Brunswick, 1828; Toronto (Ont.), 1828; Queen's, Kingston (Ont.), 1841; Laval (Que.), 1852; Manitoba, 1877. The government also established (1874) the Royal Military College at Kingston (Ont.). The following are the chief scientific societies: Royal Society of Canada; Natural History Society of Montreal; Canadian Institute, Toronto; Nova Scotia Institute; Natural History Society, New Brunswick; and Scientific and Historical Society, Winnipeg.

Social Conditions.—The distinctions of caste do not exist to the same extent as in the mother-country, although there is a careful preservation of those traditions which give the general features to English society. Almost every farmer and agriculturist is the owner of his acres—he is his own master, and is free to do as he wills. This sense and state of independence permeates the whole social system, and produces a condition of freedom unknown in older countries. Canada has passed beyond the mother-country in many social questions. Thus, as regards the liquor traffic, local option prevails; by an Act of the Dominion Parliament in 1882, marriage with a deceased wife's sister was legalised; religious liberty prevails; there is practically free and unsectarian education, and a free and liberal franchise; members of parliament are paid for their services; the parliaments are quinquennial; and there is no system for legalising pauperism, although orphans and the helpless and aged of both sexes are not neglected.

Public Lands.—The public lands in the various provinces are under the control of the local governments, excepting in the case of Manitoba and the North-west Territories, where the lands are retained by the Dominion government, the object being, by sale, &c., to obtain a refund of the money expended in acquiring the territory, and in constructing the Canadian Pacific Railway. Every encouragement is held out to immigration, free grants of land being obtainable in most of the provinces, while improved farms, with buildings, implements, and machinery, can be purchased from the holders on favourable terms in many parts. In Manitoba and the North-west the government offer free grants of 160 acres of land to male settlers over eighteen years of age, and to females if heads of families, with the right to pre-empt a similar quantity at from 8s. to 10s. per acre.

Trade and Commerce.—The value of the imports in Canada for the year ending June 30, 1887, was 112,892,236; 105,639,428 being entered for consumption. The duty collected amounted to 22,469,705, equal to 4.63 (19s.) per head of the population. In 1887 the imports from the United States were 42.7 per cent. of the whole, from Great Britain 42.5, the balance of the imports being from foreign countries and other colonies. In the year 1892-3 the total value imported was 129,074,268, of which 121,705,030 were for consumption. The principal articles were—iron goods (13,190,000), woolen goods (10,946,000), coal (10,524,000), sugar (7,477,000), cotton goods (4,557,000), chemicals, cotton, tea, silk, skins, fruit, tobacco, wool, linen and jute goods, &c. Of the total imports, 58,222,000 represented the United States, 43,148,000 were for British goods; the West Indies sent goods to the amount of 4,245,000, followed by Germany, China and Japan, and Newfoundland; French imports had a value of only $653,000.

The exports from Canada in 1892-93 touched the value of 118,564,352, of which 105,798,257 represented native produce or bullion—timber to the amount of 26,034,000; grain, 16,217,000; butter and cheese, 14,704,000; animals, 10,661,000; fish, 8,079,000; flesh, 3,133,000; followed by coal, fruit, skins, hay, and miscellaneous goods. Of the total, goods to the amount of 58,410,000 went to Britain, 37,606,000 to the United States, 3,068,000 to the West Indies, 2,383,000 to France, 1,310,000 to South America, and only 667,000 to Germany. The exports for the preceding year, 1891-92, were also thus classified: produce of the mines, 5,905,000; of fisheries, 9,675,000; of the forest, 5,288,000; animals and their produce, 28,594,000; agricultural produce, 22,113,000; manufactures, 24,035,000; miscellaneous, $71,000.

These figures do not give an accurate idea of the total trade of Canada. They only embrace the outside trade, and do not include the large business which naturally takes place between the provinces. It is impossible to estimate the amount of the inter-provincial trade.

Defence.—The imperial government garrisons the fortress of Halifax, regarded as an imperial station, with 2000 imperial troops. There is a small fort at St John, N. B.; and the fortifications at Esquimalt are to be garrisoned by British troops. The British naval force on the American and West Indian stations, and on the Pacific stations, may be regarded as available for the defence of Canada. For the rest, the Dominion relies on her own land and marine militia, divided into active and reserve. Since 1869 the militia consists of all men between 18 and 60; not more than 45,000 are drilled every year, for not more than 16 days. In 1899-1900, when Canadian and Australian troops fought side by side with those of the mother-country in South Africa, the active militia comprised 35,700 men, and the reserves 200,000. There is a permanent army of 1000 Royal Canadian cavalry, artillery, and infantry, and a Royal Military College at Kingston.

Fisheries.—These are, as regards the area available, the largest in the world, embracing nearly 5600 miles of sea-coast, in addition to inland seas, innumerable lakes, and a great number of rivers. The display made by Canada at the Fisheries Exhibition in London in 1883 attracted much attention. The products of the fisheries exported and sold in the Dominion markets amount annually to a little under 20,000,000. The fresh-water fisheries are also of great importance, the immense lakes and rivers supplying an abundance of fish of great commercial value, both for home consumption and export, besides providing sportsmen with some of the finest salmon and trout fishing to be found anywhere. The values of the yield of some of the principal fishes are, annually, on an average: Cod, 3,500,000; herring, 2,200,000; lobsters, 2,000,000; salmon, 2,000,000; mackerel, 1,500,000—the others being: haddock, trout, sardines, and white-fish. Much attention has of late years been given to the development of the fisheries. The Dominion Government has granted a yearly sum of $150,000 as a bounty, to be divided, according to catch, among the vessels and boats engaged in the prosecution of the sea fisheries. One result has been an increase in the number, and a great improvement in the build and outfit of fishing-vessels. It has also provided fish-breeding establishments, of which there are twelve, in different parts of the Dominion; and millions of edible fishes are yearly hatched and placed in the rivers and lakes.

Minerals.—The exports under this head are chiefly coal, gold, copper, iron, phosphates, salt, antimony, mineral oils, and gypsum. Gold mines have been and are being worked in Nova Scotia, in Quebec, and Ontario, and largely in British Columbia, where there are yet immense fields to open up. Silver mines are being worked in Ontario; and that at Silver Islet, Thunder Bay (on Lake Superior), has been the richest yet discovered in Canada. Iron ore is found all over the Dominion. Copper has been mined to a considerable extent both in Quebec and Ontario, and the deposits of the ore are of great extent. There are very large coal-deposits in Nova Scotia. The coast of British Columbia is rich in coal of a quality which commands a preference in the markets of San Francisco, notwithstanding the high duty. Coal is known to exist over a vast region stretching from 150 to 200 miles east of the Rocky Mountains, and north from the frontier for 1000 miles.

Forests.—The forest-products of Canada constitute one of her most important sources of wealth. They find their way to all parts of the world—to the United States, to the United Kingdom, and to the Australian colonies. The Canadian sawmills are extensive and well appointed. The industry in all its stages employs large numbers of men, as well as affording freight to railways and shipping. Among the woods are the maple (hard and soft), elm, hickory, ironwood, pine, spruce, cedar, hemlock, walnut, oak, butternut, basswood, poplar, chestnut, rowan, willow, black and white birch, and many more.

Animals and their Produce.—Exports under this head include live animals, meat, butter, cheese, eggs, furs, hides and skins, and wool, and form the largest item in the classification of the exports. Except the long-established fur-trade (see HUDSON BAY COMPANY, FURS), this industry has been largely the growth of recent years. In 1874 the total exports of cattle were 39,623 head, of which only 455 went to Great Britain. In 1887 the number had increased to 116,274, of which 63,622, valued at £5,344,375 sterling, were shipped to Great Britain. In 1891, including horses and sheep, the number was 110,000, besides 2700 to the United States. The cattle are of good quality, many pedigree and highly priced cattle having been imported for the improvement of the flocks and herds during the last ten years. Herds of Shorthorns, Herefords, Galloways, Polled Angus, and Jerseys are to be found in many parts of Canada. Great progress has been made in dairy-farming, and the factory system has been latterly introduced in the older provinces. There are factories for the manufacture of cheese, and creameries for the manufacture of butter. The export of Canadian cheese to the United Kingdom has largely increased within the last few years (in 1868 the total was only 1,577,072 lb., and in 1887 it was 73,185,517 lb., valued at 7,065,983). In 1892 the value of cheese exported was 11,652,412; butter, 1,056,058; and eggs, 1,089,798. Poultry is largely shipped to the United States; and bee-keeping is profitably carried on in many parts of the Dominion.

Agricultural Products.—The agricultural exports include general farm-produce and fruit. There is a Dominion Department of Agriculture, with a member of the cabinet at its head; and legislative authority has recently been obtained for the establishment of five government experimental farms in various parts of the Dominion—one at Ottawa, for Ontario and Quebec, one each for the maritime provinces, Manitoba, the North-west Territories, and British Columbia—which are expected to prove valuable to the farming community. Agriculture is the leading interest of the country, and must remain so for a long time, considering the immense areas of land that have still to be occupied and tilled. With a population of about 5,000,000, about $50,000,000 of farm-produce—including animals and their products, and agricultural produce—are now exported, in addition to that required for home consumption. Mixed farming is generally carried on, the growing of grain and fruit, stock-raising, and dairy-farming being more or less combined.

Manufactures.—Since 1878 the development in manufacturing industries has been marked; but on the whole it may be said that the manufactures of Canada are as yet in their infancy. Agricultural implements are made for home use, and to a small extent are exported. There is sugar refining in Halifax and Montreal, Quebec has tan-yards and boot and shoe factories; and there are about 30 cotton-mills in the Dominion. In 1891 it was found that the capital invested in manufactures was 360,000,000, and the annual produce 485,000,000.

Banking.—The paid-up capital invested in banking in 1892 was over 61,500,000, and the deposits amounted to 171,150,000, as against 32,808,104 in 1868. In addition to the ordinary chartered banks, there are the post-office and government savings-banks, the deposits in which have increased from 1,422,047 in 1868 to $40,000,000 in 1892, the number of depositors being now estimated at 120,000. These figures do not include the deposits in one or two chartered savings-banks, or investments in the various loan, friendly, and building societies.

Fiscal Policy.—The percentage of duty on the total value of goods imported, dutiable and free, in 1868 was 12 per cent.; in 1878 it was 13.74; in 1879 the 'national policy' was inaugurated, and a general increase in the tariff sanctioned by parliament. In 1880 the percentage was 16.34, and in 1887 it was 19.87. Too much significance must not be attached to these latter figures, as although some of the duties have been increased, many reductions have also been made, and many articles added to the free list. In 1880 the articles imported duty free formed 20 per cent. of the total imports, and in 1887 no less than 35 per cent. The amount of customs duty paid per head of population was 15s. 9d. and 19s. in the respective years. In 1892 the duty was about 25 per cent., and 35 per cent. of the imports came in duty free. It is right to remark that no restrictions exist as to trade between the different provinces, and that free trade prevails within the Dominion. The Intercolonial Conference of 1894 at Ottawa resolved in favour of a customs arrangement between Great Britain and her colonies, by which trade within the empire should be placed on a more favourable footing than trade with foreigners.

Railways.—There are about 15,000 miles of railway in Canada at the present time. The three principal systems are the Canadian Pacific (with branches, 6500 miles), Grand Trunk (2600 miles), and the Intercolonial (1190 miles). The balance of the mileage is made up of smaller lines in the various provinces. The total paid-up capital has been upwards of 850,000,000, to which the Dominion and local governments have contributed, in one way or another, 180,000,000. The number of passengers carried averages over 13,000,000 annually, and the freight 25,000,000 tons. The Canadian Pacific Railway was completed from ocean to ocean in

1871-85. Its construction was one of the conditions under which British Columbia joined the Confederation in 1871. It was found impossible to complete it by 1881, the time fixed, and the date was extended to 1891. Prior to 1880 the work was undertaken by the government, but in that year the Canadian Pacific Railway Company was formed, and undertook to complete the line by 1891, in consideration of a subsidy of $25,000,000, 25,000,000 acres of land, and the transfer of those portions of the line already under construction by the government (700 miles) when completed. The railway was finished in December 1885, nearly six years before the stipulated time, and through trains are now running daily from the Atlantic to the Pacific. By this route the distance from Liverpool to Japan and China is shorter by 1000 miles than via New York and San Francisco; and this trans-continental line is shorter by 600 miles than any of those in the United States. The construction of this railway and the Intercolonial Railway has cost Canada about £24,000,000 sterling. The first year in which there was no increase of traffic to report was 1894, when, on account of the decline in the price of wheat, depression in trade, severe snow-storms and floods, the working profits have been greatly reduced. About 560 old wooden bridges have been superseded by permanent ones. The railway is not only of importance locally to Canada, as connecting the various provinces and opening up the vast North-west Territories for settlement, but it is of imperial importance as providing a new route to Australasia and the East, available for commerce, and for military and naval purposes (see next paragraph).

Shipping.—The following is the number of vessels owned in the Dominion in 1894: Number of vessels, 7010; number of steamers, 1538; gross tonnage (steamers), 241,172; total net tonnage, 1,054,214. Canada stands fifth on the list of the mercantile countries of the world, the difference in its tonnage and that of Germany, which occupies the fourth place, being very slight. Assuming the average value to be 30 per ton, the value of the registered tonnage of Canada would be over 31,000,000. The Imperial and Canadian governments agreed in the year 1887 to grant a subsidy of £60,000 for ten years to lines of steamers between British Columbia and China. Negotiations took place in 1888-93 between the governments of Canada and Australasia, with a view to the establishment of steamship communication between Vancouver, New Zealand, and Australia, and the Canadian government agreed to give a large subsidy. In 1893 a monthly service was established between Sydney and Vancouver, via Fiji. The project of a telegraphic cable between British Columbia, New Zealand, and New South Wales, was the first matter discussed at the great Intercolonial Conference held at Ottawa to promote mutual help and commercial intercourse between the colonies and with the mother country.

Canals and River Systems.—The canals of Canada have a length of only 270 miles, taken in themselves; but they render available more than 3000 miles by inland navigation. Canals and the river improvements have cost a large sum of money, and they are works of great utility and importance. A novel mode of employing Canadian water-power is a branch of the great scheme for utilising Niagara Falls for producing electricity; the system of the United States side was well forward when, in 1894, the Canadian system was begun. The channel of the St Lawrence has been deepened, and vessels of 5000 and 6000 tons now reach Montreal, 700 miles from the Atlantic Ocean. There are nearly 5 miles of wharves at this city, and every facility for loading and discharging ships. At Quebec, also, there are facilities for an immense shipping-trade. There is a system of canals to overcome the St Lawrence rapids, and the difference in the levels of the great lakes (600 feet) which affords uninterrupted navigation from the Straits of Belleisle to the head of Lake Superior, a distance of 2384 miles, of which 714 miles are canals. The locks range from 200 to 270 feet long by 45 feet wide; some are 14 feet deep, others only 9 feet, but the intention is to make them of a uniform depth of 14 feet. A canal system connects the river Ottawa and Montreal, another opens navigation between Ottawa and Kingston, and another between Lake Champlain and the St Lawrence. In Nova Scotia the St Peter's Canal connects St Peter's Bay with the Bras d'Or lakes. There is also navigation on the lakes in the north-west and on the rivers Assiniboine and Saskatchewan, the latter being navigable for over 1000 miles.

Hudson Bay Route.—In 1884-5-6 the Canadian government despatched expeditions with a view to ascertain the length of time during which the Hudson Strait was navigable. The expeditions were under the command of Lieutenant Gordon, R.N., and H.M.S. Alert was placed by Her Majesty's government at the disposal of Canada for that and other purposes. The result of the investigations was that the strait was considered to be navigable from the first week in July to the first week in October in ordinary seasons for specially built ships. By this route, the distance between Great Britain and Manitoba and the North-west Territories would be much shortened, Fort Churchill being nearer to Liverpool than New York.

Revenue, Expenditure, and Public Debt.—The revenue in the financial year 1892-93 was 48,008,448, of which 20,954,000 were derived from customs, and 8,367,000 from excise. The ordinary expenditure of the year amounted to 36,814,053, but with extraordinary expenses, just exhausted the revenue. The budget of 1894-95 provided for a total expenditure, ordinary and extraordinary, of 40,038,393. Since 1888 the revenue has increased from 36,000,000. Only once in the period 1888-92 did the expenditure exceed the revenue. The debt in 1893 amounted in all to 300,054,525, some without interest, some at rates of from 3 to 6 per cent. The debt has been mainly incurred for public works—the outlay in canals and railways alone has exceeded 31 millions of dollars—and the interest on this part of the debt is the largest part of the annual charge. Of the debt 201,615,487 is payable in London.

Relation to the United States.—Between countries situated as are Canada and the United States, it is inevitable that the relations should be close, complicated, delicate, and apt at times to provoke mutual jealousy. Specially troublesome were the Behring Sea seal-fishery question (see below and at SEAL) and the rights of United States fishermen on or near Canadian waters. 'Commercial Union' and absolute reciprocity have been frequently discussed; a discussion on the desirableness of annexing Canada to the United States was raised in the United States House of Representatives; and in Canada itself there have been found voices in favour of the union. Professor Goldwin Smith (q.v.) is the most conspicuous exponent of the view, generally unpopular in Canada, that the ultimate destiny of Canada is to be united with the American Republic.

Constitution.—The government is federal. The provinces have local legislatures, and they also elect the Federal Parliament which sits at Ottawa. The Executive Government and authority of and over Canada is vested in the Queen. The governor-general for the time being, whose emoluments are paid out of the Canadian revenue, carries on the government in the name of Her Majesty, with the assistance of a council, known as the cabinet, consisting of the heads of the various departments, which is responsible to the House of Commons. The Dominion Parliament consists of an upper house, styled the Senate (81 members), and the House of Commons (213 members). The senators are nominated for life by the governor in council. The commons are elected every five years, unless the House be dissolved before its course has run. There is a special franchise distinct from that in force for the provincial assemblies; both are exceedingly liberal and extensive. The procedure is very much the same as in the imperial parliament at Westminster. At the head of each of the provinces is a lieutenant-governor, appointed by the governor in council, and paid by the Dominion, who is the medium of communication between the provinces and the Federal Government. In most of the provinces there are two Houses of Legislature, but in Ontario, Manitoba, and British Columbia there are only single houses. This, however, is a matter entirely within the control of the local authorities, as are also the election of members, franchise qualifications, and alteration of electoral districts; but the extreme length of the local parliaments is defined as four years. The executive in each province is responsible to the local legislature. The North-west Territories are administered by a lieutenant-governor and a council, partly elected and partly nominated. The powers of the respective Dominion and provincial parliaments, and the contributions to the revenues of the latter from the Dominion treasury, are defined by the original act and amending acts. Legislation upon local matters is delegated, as a general rule, to the provinces. There is also a very perfect system of municipal government throughout the Dominion. Both the counties and townships have their local councils, which regulate the taxation for roads, schools, and other purposes, so that every man directly votes for the taxes he is called upon to pay. Local taxation is very light.

History.—In 1534 Jacques Cartier, a French navigator, a native of St Malo, set out from that port with two small vessels of 20 tons each, landed on the shores of Gaspé (now part of the province of Quebec), and took possession of the country in the name of his sovereign, Francis I. He went again in the following year (1535), passed up the gulf and river, which he named the St Lawrence, and reached Stadaconé, the site of the present city of Quebec. Continuing his voyage, he arrived at Hochelaga, another Indian town, and gave it the name of Mont Royal, since corrupted into Montreal. After passing the winter at Stadaconé he returned to France. But little or nothing was done to promote the colonisation of the country until 1608, when Samuel de Champlain, a Frenchman of gentle birth, maritime and military experience, and much religious enthusiasm, visited Canada for the third time, with the object of extending Christianity and developing trade and commerce, and founded the city of Quebec, the name of which is said to be derived from an Indian word kebek, 'the rock.' The control of the immense region, extending eastward to Acadia (Nova Scotia), westward to Lake Superior, and down the Mississippi as far as the Gulf of Mexico, was from this time until 1763 claimed by France (see ACADIA). Recollet and Jesuit missionaries traversed it in all directions, suffering great hardships in their endeavours to convert the Indians. Their work was watched with much enthusiasm in France, and it is admitted that they were the first explorers of the country and the pioneers of civilisation in the Far West.

The claims of France were not, however, undisputed, as is shown by the grant of a charter in 1670 by Charles II, to Prince Rupert and his company, known ever since as the Hudson Bay Company, of the exclusive right of trading in the territory watered by streams flowing into Hudson Bay. As already mentioned, they gave up their exclusive rights in 1869 on certain conditions, among others, a money payment of £300,000 and a large grant of land. The struggle between Great Britain and France for supremacy in North America was long and bitter, but it terminated finally in 1763 by the cession to the former under the Treaty of Paris of Canada with all its dependencies, except the islands of St Pierre and Miquelon, which were retained as fishing stations, not to be fortified or garrisoned. Hudson Bay with the adjacent territory, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland had been previously transferred to England by the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713. The population of Canada in 1763 was about 70,000, of Nova Scotia, 8000. No time was lost in attempting to adapt British institutions to the new possession; but considerable friction occurred for some years, and it was not altogether allayed by the passing in 1774 of what is known as the Quebec Act. This gave the French-Canadians the free exercise of their religion, and secured their civil rights, laws, and customs. It annexed large territories to Quebec, including that part of the United States now forming Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, which passed from Great Britain in 1783. Quebec was eventually in 1791 divided into Upper and Lower Canada; but this did not prove satisfactory in either province, leading to conflicts between the popular and elected assemblies and the nominated or official councils, and ultimately to the rebellion in 1837-38.

In accordance with Lord Durham's recommendations, the two provinces were re-united in 1840 (population of Upper Canada, 450,000, of Lower Canada, 650,000), but the union was not a success politically, although it indirectly led to the great confederation in 1867. It should be mentioned that the inhabitants of Upper Canada consisted largely of United Empire loyalists, who remained loyal to British institutions, and who left the United States at the close of the War of Independence, while those of Lower Canada were almost exclusively French-Canadians. The representatives from each province in the united parliament were equal in number. Upper Canada, however, made greater progress than Lower Canada (the population in 1851 was 952,004 and 890,261 respectively, and in 1861, 1,396,061 and 1,111,566), and agitated for an additional number of members and claimed other concessions, but the demands were always opposed by the latter. The consequence was frequent legislative deadlocks and continual difficulties. Such was the state of things in 1864. It is now necessary to refer to the other colonies on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. In 1770 St John Island (renamed Prince Edward Island in 1780), and in 1784 New Brunswick, were formed out of Nova Scotia into separate colonies. In 1858, owing to the rush for gold and the influx of population, British Columbia was made a crown colony, and in 1866 Vancouver Island was joined to it. In 1864 the maritime provinces were discussing the desirability of local confederation, and advantage of the opportunity was taken by Canada to propose a broader scheme to cover all British North America, and after several conferences a basis of union was agreed upon which resulted in the formation of the Dominion.

Since the confederation of the provinces, the chief events of importance may be put in the following tabular form:

1869. The Red River rebellion, which collapsed in August 1870, on the arrival at Fort Garry of the expedition under Colonel (now Lord) Wolseley.

1871. Treaty of Washington signed, dealing, among other things, with the fisheries and the mutual use of certain canals.

1873. Defeat of the Conservative ministry (Sir John Macdonald, premier) on Pacific Railway question.

1877. Award of the Halifax Fishery Commission in favour of Great Britain of 5,500,000 dollars, as representing the value of the fishing privileges granted to the United States, over and above the concessions made to Canada under the Washington Treaty.

1878. Defeat of the Liberal ministry (Hon. A. Mackenzie, premier).

1879. Adoption by new Conservative ministry of the higher customs tariff, called the national policy, as a measure of protection against the United States fiscal policy, and to foster native industries.

1880. Contract for construction of Canadian Pacific Railway signed. It was ratified in 1881 by parliament.

1885. Outbreak of disturbances among the half-breeds, under Louis Riel, in the Saskatchewan district, North-west Territories, in March. Suppressed in July by the force under Major-general Middleton. The total force in the field was about 4000 men of the Canadian militia. Louis Riel tried, condemned to death, and executed. Last spike of the Canadian Pacific Railway driven (November 7).

1886. The first through train for the Pacific left Montreal (June 28).

1887. Local Act passed for construction of Red River Valley Railway to boundary line to connect with United States railways. Act disallowed by governor-in-council. Agreement arrived at between the British and United States governments to discuss the fishery disputes in conference at Washington. British plenipotentiaries, Right Hon. J. Chamberlain, Sir Lionel Sackville West, and Sir Charles Tupper.

1888. Treaty for the settlement of the fishery disputes signed by the British and United States representatives (Feb. 15), subject to ratification by legislatures of respective countries. Recognised right of Canada to fisheries in three-mile limit; United States fishing-vessels to be allowed to land, sell, and tranship cargoes only in cases of distress; may enter the ports for wood, water, shelter, and repairs; and, on obtaining a license (given without charge), to purchase casual supplies and stores (excepting bait). Meantime, to avoid friction, a modus vivendi was offered, providing that United States fishing-vessels might have all the privileges mentioned above, on payment of a tonnage license fee of 1.50 dollars per ton. The United States Senate refused ratification. The modus vivendi subsequently renewed. The motion for unrestricted reciprocity between the United States and Canada rejected by the Dominion House of Commons.

1889. Proposal that the governor-general should have independent action in foreign affairs disapproved by parliament. Act restoring the property of the Jesuits; petition against it disallowed by the government.

1891. Death of Sir John Macdonald. Some officials tried for corruption.

1892. Treaty of Arbitration between Great Britain, Canada, and the United States, as to the rights of scal-fishing off Alaska and in Behring Sea.

1893. Award of the Behring Sea Arbitration Court. Establishment of direct steam communication between Canada and Australia.

1894. Ratification of the Behring Sea treaty. Inter-colonial Conference at Ottawa on a Pacific cable between Canada and Australia, and the promotion of commercial intercourse between the colonies and with Great Britain.

1895. Franco-Canadian commercial treaty.

1896. Religious education troubles in Manitoba settled. Sir Wilfrid Laurier first French Canadian and Catholic premier.

1897. New tariff favouring trade with Britain and the other colonies. Gold fever at Klondyke.

1898. Conference at Quebec between Britain, the United States, and Canada about the frontier of Alaska (q.v.), fishery regulations for the great lakes and the North Atlantic, the import duties on Canadian timber, alien labour laws, and reciprocity of trade between Canada and the United States.

1899. Temporary arrangement as to the Alaska frontier. Canadian troops with the Imperial forces at the seat of war in South Africa.

The governor-generals of Canada, since 1867, have been: Lord Monck (1867-68), Lord Lisgar (1868-72), Lord Dufferin (1872-78), Lord Lorne (1878-83), Lord Lansdowne (1883-88), Lord Stanley of Preston (1888-93), the Earl of Aberdeen (1893-98), and the Earl of Minto (1898).

The progress of Canada since confederation has been very rapid, but its varied resources are still practically undeveloped. Recent events, however, particularly the extension of railways and the completion of the trans-continental system, have placed Canada in a position of advantage which she had not previously occupied. In consequence, the volume of immigration to the immense areas of unoccupied fertile lands is increasing; the agricultural, manufacturing, and mining industries are becoming more important every year; trade and commerce is expanding both at home and abroad; and the wealth of the people is becoming greater.

Literature.—Canada has been making steady progress in literature, and the future is full of promise in this respect; Judge Haliburton ('Sam Slick'), Sir William Edmond Logan, Sir William Dawson, Alpheus Todd (in Constitutional History), Grant Allen, and G. J. Romanes, have achieved a wide reputation. C. G. D. Roberts and Bliss Carman are favourably known as poets, and Gilbert Parker as a story-teller. Mr Fréchette of Quebec was crowned (1880) the poet of the year by the French Academy. Sir Daniel Wilson, like Professor Goldwin Smith, was only Canadian by adoption. The contributions of Canadians to the magazines both of the United States and of Great Britain are yearly becoming more frequent and more important.

For the relation of the British colonies to the French in Canada, see UNITED STATES, Vol. X, pp. 382, 383; see also the articles COLONY, EMIGRATION, MACDONALD (Sir J. A.), and the articles on the several provinces of the Dominion. Besides works cited in Morgan's Bibliotheca Canadensis (Ottawa, 1867), reference may be made to the Histories of Canada by Faillon (French, 2 vols. Mont. 1865), Tuttle (Boston, 1878), Garneau (French, 4 vols. Mont. 1883), Dent (Toronto, 1883), Réveillard (French, 1884), Bryce (1887), and Kingsford (8 vols. 1888 et seq.). See also Parkman's Works (1872-84); Confederation Debates (1865); Todd's Parliamentary Government in the British Colonies (Boston, 1880); Her Majesty's Colonies (1886); Grant's Ocean to Ocean (1873), and Picturesque Canada (2 vols. Toronto, 1884); Ryerson's Loyalists of America (1880), and Story of my Life (1883); Sandford Fleming, Intercolonial Railway (1876); Pacific Railway (1880); the Marquis of Lorne's Canadian Life and Scenery (1885); Emile Petitot, Traditions Indiennes du Canada Nordouest (Paris, 1886); Silver's Handbook; the annual Statistical Abstract and Record of Canada (first published 1886); Clapin, La France Transatlantique (Paris, 1885); Lovell's Gazetteer and History of Canada (1887-89); the Canadian Guidebooks, such as that of Roberts (1891); Goldwin Smith's Canada and the Canadian Question (1891); Canadian Poems and Lays, edited by Lightfall (1893); Taurine's La Nation Canadienne (Paris, 1894); Greswell (1894); Justin Winsor's Cartier and Frontenac (1895).