Carbonari (literally 'colliers' or 'charcoal-burners'), the name of certain secret societies, which flourished both in Italy and France at the beginning of this century. The aim of the societies was the overthrow of the despotic and reactionary governments then existing. They originated in Italy while under the rule of the Bonapartes. Botta, in his Storia d'Italia, states that, under Murat's government, the Neapolitan republicans, equally hating the French and King Ferdinand, escaped about 1808 into the wild defiles of the Abruzzi, and here, naming themselves 'Carbonari,' formed a secret society. The name of Carbonari was taken from the trade of charcoal-burning pursued in that part of Italy, and a great deal of the peculiar phraseology used in reference to their organisation and their proceedings was drawn from the same source. Thus one of their lodges was called a hut (baracca); an ordinary meeting, vendita (a sale); a meeting of great importance, alta vendita. But much of their ceremonial and phraseology was drawn from freemasonry and the Christian religion. Their motto or war-cry was 'Vengeance for the lamb torn by the wolf.' There were four grades in the organisation, with mystic rites of initiation. Attempts at centralisation of the Italian Carbonari were attempted, but without much success.
The Carbonari played a considerable part in Italian history. Murat, the Bonapartist king of Naples, repressed them for a time, their leader Capobianco being put to death; yet they helped to overthrow French rule in Southern Italy. After the Bourbon restoration in 1815 the discontent continued, and Carbonarism attained to its greatest degree of prosperity. Priests, officers of the army, and even women joined the organisation, which included among its members Charles Albert (afterwards king of Sardinia), Lord Byron, Silvio Pellico, and Mazzini. In 1820 its membership, variously estimated at 300,000 and 700,000, included most of the patriotism and intelligence of Italy. But its strength was broken through the unsuccessful risings of 1820 and 1821, the power of Austria and of the reaction being too great for revolutionary Italy. Subsequently the more active portion of the revolutionary party in the peninsula was absorbed by the 'Young Italy' movement (1831) of Mazzini.
After the restoration of the Bourbons several secret political unions were formed in France, and in 1820 were confederated with the Carbonari. Paris, after the prosecutions against the secret societies of Italy, was made the headquarters of a Carbonarism which, adopting all the symbolic phraseology, rules, and regulations of the Italian societies, received from the rapidly systematising genius of the French an organic character which it had never before possessed. Lafayette was president of the supreme board, and many students and inferior officers in the army joined the societies. The initiated styled themselves bons cousins, and spoke of the uninitiated as pagani (heathens). Written documents and communications were strictly prohibited by the heads of the union, and treachery was to be punished by assassination. Following the example of their Italian brethren, the French Carbonari in 1821 attempted risings in several towns in France. Though unsuccessful, they revealed the considerable numbers and effective organisation of the societies, and they survived in sufficient strength to take a part in the revolution of July 1830. After that event several of the leading French Carbonari attached themselves to the new régime, and their society was gradually dissolved. In its place the new Charbonnerie Démocratique was founded, having for its object the establishment of a republican government on the communistic principles of Babeuf (q.v.). But this form of Carbonarism did not long continue. Since 1848 Carbonarism generally has disappeared. The discontent that produced it has either been satisfied by the concession of constitutional government, or has found expression in later phases of the revolutionary movement. See Heckethorn's Secret Societies (1875).