Encyclopædia (from the Greek enkyklios, 'circular' or 'general,' and paideia, 'discipline' or 'instruction') is in modern usage a work professing to give information in regard to the whole circle of human knowledge, or in regard to everything included within some particular scientific or conventional division of it. The character of such works has of necessity varied from generation to generation, with changing conceptions of the scope and value of our knowledge and of the mutual relations of one department with another. An encyclopædia as such cannot rise above the general culture of its time; the medieval encyclopædia will be as medieval in the distribution and perspective of its subjects as in the selecting and presenting of its facts. As knowledge has increased it has become more and more necessary, in order to say something (and the most important something) about everything, to be content not to say everything about anything. And while, in the 10th century, one laborious student might undertake to give the world a conspectus of all that was of worth in its literature and science, a modern work of similar scope demands the co-operation of hundreds of intellects. For the history of the word, see Boeckh's Encyklopädie und Methodologie der phil. Wissenschaften (1866, pp. 34-37).
Though several of the ancient philosophers of Greece, and notably Aristotle, carried their investigations into every department of inquiry within their intellectual horizon, none of them seems to have compiled exactly what we now call an encyclopædia. Speusippus, indeed, is credited with something of the sort; but his works exist only in fragments. The great Latin collections of Terentius Varro (Rerum humanarum et divinarum Antiquitates and Disciplinarum libri ix.), dating from 30 B.C., and the so-called Historia Naturalis of the elder Pliny (23-79 A.D.), may thus be considered as the first specimens of their class. The 5th century saw the production of a curious and oddly written encyclopædia by Martianus Capella; in the 7th, Isidorus Hispalensis compiled his Originum seu Etymologiarum libri xx., which was afterwards abridged and recast by Hrabanus Maurus. Under the calif of Bagdad, Alfarabi or Farabi, in the 10th century, wrote an encyclopædic work, Ihsa Alulum—remarkable for its grasp and completeness; but this has hitherto been left in manuscript (a fine copy is preserved in the Escorial). Vincent of Beauvais (Vincentius Bellovacensis), who probably died in 1264, gathered together, under the patronage of Louis IX. of France, the entire knowledge of the middle ages in three comprehensive works—Speculum Historiale, Speculum Naturale, and Speculum Doctrinale, to which an unknown hand soon after added a Speculum Morale. About the same time Brunetto Latini was engaged on his Livres dou Tresor (printed in Italian in 1474, and in the original French in Documents inédits, 1860). The De proprietatibus rerum of Bartholomæus de Glanville deserves mention as being of English origin and highly successful in its day. Written about 1240, this became exceedingly popular in the translation (1398) by the Cornishman John Trevisa. In 1541 the name Cyclopædia is first used as the title of a book by Ringelberg of Basel, and in 1559 Paul Scalich styles his work Encyclopædia seu orbis disciplinarum tum sacrarum tum profanarum. Among the numerous encyclopædias of the 17th century it is enough to mention Antonio Zara's (Venice, 1615) and Alsted's (7 vols. fol. Herborn, 1630), both in Latin; Moreri's Grand Dictionnaire historique (Lyons, 1674), which reached a 20th edition in 1759; Hofmann's Lexicon Universale (2 vols. fol. Basel, 1677; 4 vols. fol. Leyd. 1698), which was the first attempt to bring the whole body of science and art under the lexicographic form; Thomas Corneille's Dictionnaire des Arts et des Sciences (2 vols. Paris, 1694; and most famous of all, Bayle's Dictionnaire historique et critique (4 vols. Rotterdam, 1697), which was mainly designed as corrective and supplementary to Moreri. This last appeared in several English editions generally more or less expurgated or modified, as in that issued at London (10 vols. fol. 1734-41); and J. G. de Chaufepié published a Nouveau Dictionnaire as a supplement (4 vols. Amsterdam, 1750). It was in the course of the 17th century that encyclopedists began regularly to employ the vulgar tongues for their work, and to arrange their material alphabetically for convenience of consultation. Of the vast Bibliotheca Universale, planned by Coronelli to fill 45 folio volumes, only a small portion saw the light (Venice, 1701-6). The series of great encyclopædic works in modern English practically began by the anonymous Universal, Historical, Geographical, Chronological, and Classical Dictionary (2 vols. 1703), and the Lexicon Technicum of Dr John Harris (Lond. 1704). Ephraim Chambers followed in 1728 with his Cyclo- pædia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences (2 vols. fol.), which presents a distinct advance in the construction of such works, the author endeavouring to give to his alphabetically arranged materials something of the interest of a continuous discourse by a system of cross references. A sixth edition of this popular work appeared in 1751-52, and a supplement in 2 fol. vols. in 1753. Dennis de Coetlogon published An Universal History of Arts and Sciences (2 vols. fol. Lond. 1745). A revised and enlarged edition of Chambers's was published in 1778-88 by Abraham Rees, who, besides incorporating the supplement with the main body of the work, added a large amount of original matter.
It was a French translation, by John Mills, of Chambers's Cyclopædia which originally formed the basis of that famous Encyclopédie which, becoming in the hands of D'Alembert and Diderot the organ of the most advanced and revolutionary opinions of the time, was the object of the most violent persecution by the conservative party in church and state, and suffered egregious mutilations at the hands not only of hostile censors but of timorous printers. So thoroughly was it identified with the philosophic movement of the time that the term Encyclopédiste became the recognised designation of all attached to a certain form of philosophy. Appearing at Paris in 28 vols. between 1751 and 1772, it was followed by a supplement in 5 vols. (Anst. 1776-77), and an analytical index in 2 vols. (Paris, 1780). Voltaire's Questions sur l'Encyclopédie (1770) formed a kind of critical appendix. La Porte's Esprit de l'Encyclopédie (Paris, 1768) gave a résumé of the more important articles, and under the same title Hennequin compiled a similar epitome (Paris, 1822-23). Numerous editions of the whole work, more or less expurgated or recast, were issued outside of France; and many minor encyclopædias, such as Macquer's Dictionnaire Portatif des Arts et Métiers (1766), Barrow's New and Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences (1 vol. fol. 1753), and Croker, Williams, and Clerk's Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences (3 vols. fol. 1766), were to a considerable extent quarried out of their massive predecessor, or moulded according to the method expounded by D'Alembert in his preliminary dissertation. In 1780 a privilege was obtained by C. J. Panckoucke for the publication of an Encyclopédique Méthodique, ou par Ordre des Matières, which was at first intended to be little more than a rearrangement and supplementing of the matter of Diderot's work; each main subject having a separate 'dictionary' for itself. But its method was too much for it; the scheme, though 166 vols. had been issued by 1832, was never completely realised.
Between 1768 and 1771 there appeared at Edinburgh in 3 vols. 4to the first edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica, which was from the beginning a kind of compromise between the alphabetical and the scientific distribution of subjects. Colin Macfarquhar, Andrew Bell, and William Smellie share the credit of the plan. Biographical and historical articles were first introduced in the 2d edition (10 vols. 4to, 1776-1784). The third edition (18 vols.) was completed in 1797; the fourth (20 vols.) in 1810; the fifth, a mere reprint, in 1817. To the sixth edition (1823) Constable, the publisher, prefixed the well-known volume of preliminary dissertations by Dugald Stewart, Playfair, &c. The seventh edition, edited by Macvey Napier, was published by Messrs Black between 1830 and 1842. The eighth (21 vols. and index) appeared 1853-61, under the editorship of Dr Thomas Stewart Traill; and the ninth, edited by Professors Thomas S. Baynes and W. Robertson Smith, was completed in 24 vols. in 1875-88 (Index, 1889). This last edition was issued in America both by its Scottish publishers and by a so-called 'piratic' firm which also brought out the Encyclopædia Americana (4 vols. 1883-89) for the purpose of giving additional information about matters of 'American' interest.
During the period that the Encyclopædia Britannica has thus been growing from edition to edition, numerous important encyclopædias have appeared in English—the Edinburgh Encyclopædia (18 vols. 1810-30), edited by Sir David Brewster; Wilkes's Encyclopædia Londinensis (24 vols. 4to, Lond. 1810-29); Encyclopædia Perthensis (23 vols. Edin. 1816), a striking proof of the energy of its compilers, Aitchison of Edinburgh and Morison of Perth; the Encyclopædia Metropolitana (30 vols. 1818-45), arranged, according to a philosophic plan by Coleridge, in four divisions: (1) pure sciences, (2) mixed and applied sciences, (3) biography and history, and (4) miscellaneous and lexicographic articles; the Penny Cyclopædia, edited by Charles Knight for the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge (29 vols. (2 supplemental) 1833-46); and the English Cyclopædia (22 vols. 1853-61; a synoptical index, 1862; four supp. vols. 1869-73), founded on the copyright of the Penny Cyclopædia, but rearranged into four divisions—viz. geography, natural history, biography, and arts and sciences. In spite of the value of much of its material, this last encyclopædia, like Panckoucke's vast enterprise and Coleridge's ingenious scheme, furnished another proof that no encyclopædia can well be thoroughly popular which is not executed on the plan of a single alphabet. It is partly their rigid adherence to this method that has given their success to the popular German encyclopædias.
The encyclopædia now known as Brockhaus's Conversations-Lexikon, which was started by Löbel at Leipzig in 1796, and passed into the hands of F. A. Brockhaus in 1808, gave a great impetus to the production of similar works. It is still one of the most popular of German encyclopædias (14th ed. illust. 16 vols. 1891-97). Its principal rivals are Pierer's, and Meyer's Conversations-Lexikon. The former (Altenburg, 1822-36, 26 vols., with 14 supplemental vols. 1840-56), which had somewhat fallen out of date, reappeared in 12 vols. in 1888-93; while the latter has become in completeness and compression the best work of its kind (1st ed. 15 vols. Leip. 1857-60; 3d ed. 1874-78; 5th ed. 1893-98), a striking characteristic being the free use made of maps, tabular conspectuses, woodcuts, and lithographic illustrations. The Brockhaus Lexikon became the basis, more or less entirely, of encyclopædias in most of the civilised languages of Europe—Encyclopædia Española (Madrid, 1848-51); Nuova Enciclopedia Popolare Italiana (Turin, 1841-51); Nordisk Conversations-Lexikon (5 vols. Copenhagen, 1858-63; 3d edition, 1883, &c.); Svenskt Conversations-Lexikon (4 vols. Stockholm, 1845-51; since re-issued with supplements). Four English works were professedly founded on it—Encyclopædia Americana (14 vols. Phila. 1829-1846); New American Cyclopædia (16 vols. New York, 1858-64), edited by Ripley and Dana, and frequently quoted as Appleton's from the name of the publisher (new ed. 16 vols. 1873-76); the Popular Cyclopædia (7 vols. Glasgow, new ed. 1883); and Chambers's Encyclopædia (10 vols. Edin. 1860-68, edited by Dr Andrew Findlater; new ed. 10 vols., edited by David Patrick, 1888-92). In this, the new edition, Chambers's Encyclopædia, already the best-known book of its class in the English-speaking world, has been entirely recast and rewritten.
Other cyclopædias are Colange, National Encyclopædia (New York, 1872, &c.); Johnson's Illustrated Universal Cyclopædia (4 vols. N.Y., 1874-78; new ed. 8 vols. 1890-95); the Globe Cyclo- pædia, edited by Dr J. M. Ross (4to, 6 vols. Edin. 1879; afterwards issued in London under the titles of Students' Encyclopædia, Oracle Encyclopædia, &c.); Heck and Baird, Iconographic Encyclopædia (4 vols., 2 vols. plates, New York, 1860); Brand and Cox, Dict. of Science, Lit., and Art (3 vols. 1865-67; new ed. 1875); the National Encyclopædia (Lond. 1884, &c.); and Blackie's Modern Cyclopædia (8vo, Lond. 1889, &c.). Nor should we omit Larousse, Grand Dict. du XIXe siècle (4to, Paris, 1878); Chevreuil, Grand Dict. illustré (4to, Paris, 1883); and Berthelot and Dreyfus, La Grande Encyclopédie (4to, 1887; vol. xxv. 1898). Parry's Encyclopædia Cambrensis (1862-63) is of interest.
Among all European encyclopædias (and a few only have been mentioned; for every leading language could furnish a list) one stands out as a unique example of protracted production. A defect inherent in the constitution of every large encyclopædia brought out in successive volumes is that, as regards literature and the progressive sciences, the earlier portions are passing out of date before the later portions have come into existence. This characteristic is almost caricatured in the famous Allgemeine Encyclopädie der Wissenschaften und Künste, which was originally undertaken by Professors Ersch and Gruber in 1818, and has since continued slowly to appear in three several sections of the alphabet up to the present time. There have already appeared some 170 volumes, many of them containing the most elaborate monographs on individual subjects to be found in literature. Even this work looks small when compared with the great Chinese cyclopædia in 5020 Chinese volumes (6109 general headings), printed at Pekin in 1726 by command of the Emperor Kang-Hi. It was restricted to a hundred copies, one of which reached the British Museum in 1878.
An attempt to remedy the defect of protracted production has frequently led to the issue of supplemental volumes, planned so as to bring up the earlier articles to the same time-level as the later articles. And in more than one instance (notably Brockhaus's and Meyer's Conversations-Lexikon, and Appleton's American Cyclopædia) this has culminated in the issuing of an Annual Cyclopædia on the same general lines.
In contrast with the larger encyclopædias may be mentioned the modern attempts to boil down the circles of the sciences into portable form. Thus Brockhaus issued a Kleineres Conversations-Lexikon (4 vols. Leip. 1854-56; 4th ed. 2 vols. Leip. 1885); Meyer's Conversations-Lexikon is admirably epitomised in Meyer's Handlexikon (5th ed. 3 vols. Leip. 1892-93); and Spemann issues a pocket encyclopædia (Kürschner's) which is a model of compression. Similar English productions are Beeton's Encyclopædia (2 vols. 8vo, Lond. n.d.); Beeton's Dictionary of Science (8vo, Lond. n.d.); Champlin's Young Folks' Cyclopædia of Common Things (New York, 1879), with the English re-issue known as Cox's Little Encyclopædia of Common Things (8vo, Lond. 1882; 3d ed. 1884); Champlin's Young Folks' Cyclopædia of Persons and Places (1880); Hazell's Annual is a yearly cyclopædic record; Sampson Low's Pocket Cyclopædia (1889); Phillip's Million of Facts (8vo, 1836; and later without date).
Special Encyclopædias.—This class has naturally become more and more numerous; though in many cases the works are neither designated encyclopædia nor dictionary. A valuable series is Meyer's Fach-Lexika (general history, ancient history, philosophy, geography, &c.), which applies the method of the 'dictionary' to the treatment of individual subjects in separate volumes; thus differing from Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopædia, and the Encyclopædia Metropolitana, which were practically a series of treatises.
ADULTERATIONS.—Baudrimont, Dict. des Altérations (6th ed. 8vo, Paris, 1882).
AGRICULTURE.—Loudon's Encyclopædia of Agriculture (8vo, Lond. 1828); Wilson, Rural Cyclopædia (4th ed. 1848); Morton (2 vols. Glasgow, 1855); Barral (French, Paris, 1888, &c., very full).
ANTHROPOLOGY.—Bertillon, Dict. des Sciences Anthropologiques (8vo, Paris, 1882 et seq.).
ARCHÆOLOGY or ANTIQUITIES.—General: Bosc (French, 12mo, Paris, 1880). Greek and Roman: Smith's Dictionary (3d ed. 1890-91); Daremberg and Saglio (French, 4to, Paris, 1877, &c.); Baumeister, Denkmäler (8vo, 3 vols. 1884-89). Christian: Smith (8vo, Lond. 1875-80); Martigny (French, 8vo, Paris, 1877); Kraus, Realencyklopädie (8vo, Freiburg, 1880, &c.). German: Goetzinger, Real-Lexikon (8vo, Leip. 1882, &c.).
ARCHITECTURE.—Stuart (3 vols. 8vo, Lond. n.d.); Gwilt (8vo, Lond. 1842; new ed. 1867; revised by Papworth, 8vo, Lond. 1888); Dict. of Arch. (Arch. Publ. Soc. 4to, Lond. 1854-89); Viollet le Duc (10 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1858-68); Bosc (French, 4 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1876-80); Audsley, Popular Dict. of Arch. and the Allied Arts (Liverpool, 1878, &c.); Mothes, Illustrirte Baulexikon (4th ed. Leip. 1881, &c.).
ARTS, FINE.—Dictionnaire de l'Académie des Beaux-arts (Paris, 1858, &c.); Wadow, Ill. Encyklopädie der graphischen Künste (8vo, Leip. 1880, &c.); Bosc (French, 8vo, Paris, 1883); Müller, Lexikon der Bildenden Künste (Leip. 1883).
ASTRONOMY.—Herpin's Dictionnaire (8vo, Paris, 1875); Gretschel's Lexikon (8vo, Leip. 1882).
BIBLE.—Jones's (1827), Smith's (1860-63; new ed. 1893), Kitto's (2d ed. 1870), Eadie's (often reprinted), Clark's (4 vols. 1898 et seq.), Black's (1899). (See RELIGION below.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY, BIOGRAPHY. See those articles.
BOTANY.—Loudon, Encyclopædia of Plants (8vo, Lond. 1829); Endlicher, Genera Plantarum (8vo, 1836-40); Paxton, Botanical Dictionary (8vo, Lond. 1868); Ulrich, Dictionary of Plants (8vo, Leip. 1872); Baillon's Dictionnaire (4to, Paris, 1877-85); Lindley and Moore, Treasury of Botany (8vo, Lond. 1886); Engler and Prantl, Pflanzenfamilien (1887, &c.); Durand, Index Generum (8vo, 1889).
CHEMISTRY.—Liebig (German, 8vo, Brunswick, 1842-64); Muspratt (2 vols. Edin. 1858-60; German ed. 1889); Ure (Watt's ed. 1863-68, with several supplements); Fehling (8vo, Brunswick, 1874, &c.); Ladenburg (in Trewendt's great encyclopædia); Freny (French, Paris, 1882, &c.); Wurtz (new ed. 1889, &c.).
CHRONOLOGY.—Oettinger, Moniteur (8vo, Dresden, 1866-68; supp. Leip. 1873-82); Woodward and Cates (1872); Dicken's Dict. of Days (8vo, 1881, &c.); Haydn, Dict. of Dates (18th ed. 1885); Mas-Latrie, Trésor de Chronologie, &c. (fol. Paris, 1889).
COMMERCE.—Haushofer, Handlexikon (8vo, Vienna, 1881); MacCulloch (new ed. 8vo, 1882); Simmond's Dictionary (1883); Sacré (French, 8vo, Paris, 1884).
COOKERY.—Cassell's Dictionary (8vo, 1880-81); Hendess's Encyclopédie (8vo, Winterthur, 1883).
COSTUME.—Planché (2 vols. Lond. 1876-79); Kretschmer and Rohrbach (4to, Leip. 1882).
COUNCILS.—Peltier (8vo, Paris, 1847).
DRAMA.—J. O. Halliwell, Dictionary of Old English Plays (8vo, Lond. 1860); Oppenheim and Getke, Deutsche Theater-Lexikon (8vo, Leip. 1886); W. D. Adams, Dictionary of the Drama (8vo, 1883); Pougin's Dictionnaire (8vo, Paris, 1884).
EDUCATION.—Schmid's Encyclopädie (8vo, Gotha, 1859-76; 2d ed. 1876, &c.); Buisson (French, 8vo, Paris, 1882-87); Kiddle and Schem's Cyclopædia (8vo, New York, 1883); Fletcher, Sonnenschein's Cyclopædia (8vo, Lond. 1889).
ENGINEERING.—Appleton's Cyclopædia (New York, 1852); Rankine, Cyclopædia of Machine and Hand Tools (fol. Lond. 1869); Cresy's Encyclopædia (8vo, Lond. 1872); Spon's Dictionary (11 vols. 8vo, Lond. 1874-81).
FURNITURE.—Harvard, Dictionnaire de l'Ameublement et de la Décoration (4to, Paris, 1888, &c.).
GARDENING.—Miller's Dictionary (1733); Loudon (8vo, Lond. 1822); Perring's Lexikon (8vo, Leip. 1882); Dict. of Gardening: Practical Ency. (illus. vol. i. large post, 4to, Lond. 1884); Vilmorin-Andrieux, The Vegetable Garden (8vo, Lond. 1885); Robinson, Garden Cyclopædia (2d ed. 1889).
GEOGRAPHY. See article GAZETTEER.
GEOLOGY. See NATURAL SCIENCES, infra.
HISTORY.—Lalanne, Dict. Hist. de la France (8vo, Paris, 1872); Bouillet, Dictionnaire (8vo, Paris, 1876); Hermann, Lexikon (8vo, Leip. 1882); Peter, Lexikon der Gesch. des Alterthums (8vo, Leip. 1882); Adams, Manual of Hist. Literature (8vo, New York, 1882); Grégoire's Dictionnaire (2d ed. 12mo, Paris, 1883); Cassell's Dictionary of English History (1884); J. C. Ridpath, Cyclo. of Univ. History (2 vols. in 3, Cincinnati, 1885); Herbst, Ency. der neueren Geschichte (Gotha, 1888).
HYGIENE.—Tardieu, Dict. (8vo, Paris, 1865; Blyth, Dict. (8vo, Lond. 1876).
INDIA.—Balfour (3d ed. Lond. 1885).
INDUSTRIES AND MANUFACTURES.—Laboulaye's Dictionnaire (1st ed. 8vo, Paris, 1847; 6th, 4 vols. 8vo, 1885); Ure's Dictionary (3 vols. 7th ed. 1875-78); Tomlinson (3 vols. new ed. 1867); Spon's Encyclopædia (8vo, Lond. 1879, &c.); Lami, Dict. Encyclopédique (8vo, Paris, 1881, &c.).
INSURANCE.—Walford's Cyclopædia (1871, &c.).
JOURNALISM.—Scll's World's Press (8vo, 1889).
KNIGHTHOOD, &c.—Haydn, Book of Dignities (1851); Maigne's Dict. (Paris, 1861); Genouillac's Dict. (Paris, 1862).
LAW.—Bouvier's Dictionary (14th ed. Phila. 1870); Holtzendorff, Encyklopädie der Rechtswissenschaft (2d ed. 8vo, Leip. 1875-77); Sweet's Dictionary (8vo, Lond. 1882); Wharton's Dictionary (8th ed. edited by Lely, 8vo, Lond. 1889).
LITERATURE.—English: Chambers's Cyclopædia (Edin. 1842; new ed. 3 vols. 1901, &c.), Allibone's Critical Dictionary of English Literature (1859-71), H. Morley's Library of English Literature (1876-81), and compare article BIBLIOGRAPHY. American: Duyckinck's Cyclopædia (8vo, Phila. 1877). General: Vapcreau, Dict. Universel des Littératures (8vo, Paris, 1876).
MATERIA MEDICA.—Walthuch (8vo, Lond. 1868); Dujardin Beaumetz's Dictionnaire (Paris, 1882, &c.). See the article PHARMACOPÆIA.
MATHEMATICS.—Klûgel's Wörterbuch (1803-31; supp. by Grünert, 1833-36); Monferrier's Dictionnaire (Paris, 1835-40); Hoffmann's Wörterbuch (8vo, Berlin, 1858); Sonnet (8vo, Paris, 1867).
MECHANICS. See ENGINEERING, supra.
MEDICINE.—Copland (8vo, Lond. 1858); Cooper's Dict. of Pract. Surgery and Ency. of Surgical Science (2 vols. 1861-72); Dunglison (8vo, Phila. 1874); Ziemssen, Cyclopædia of the Practice of Medicine (18 vols. Lond. 1875-81); Eulenburg, Realencyklopädie (Vienna, 1880-83, 13 Bde.; 2d ed. 1884, &c.); Dechambre, &c., Dict. Ency. des Sciences Médicales (8vo, Paris, since 1864 in progress); The International Ency. of Surgery, ed. by Dr Ashurst (6 vols. 1882, &c., Macmillan); Quain's Dictionary (8vo, Lond. 1882); Littre's Dictionnaire (15th ed. Paris, 1884); Tuson's edition of Colley's Cyclopædia of Practical Receipts (2 vols. Lond. 1884); Bouchut and Després' Dictionnaire (8vo, Paris, 1885); Heath's Dict. of Pract. Surgery (2 vols. 8vo, Lond. 1886).
MILITARY SCIENCE.—Voyle, Mil. Dict. (1876); Poten's Handwörterbuch (8vo, Bielefeld, 1877-80); Lacroix's Encyclopédie (8vo, Paris, 1880); Wilhelm, Dict. and Gazetteer (8vo, Phila. 1881); Chesnel, Dict. Encycl. (2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1881).
MISSIONS.—Brown (3 vols. 8vo, Edin. 1854); Newcomb (8vo, New York, 1856).
MOHAMMEDANISM.—Hughes (8vo, Lond. 1885).
MUSIC.—Lichtenthal (8vo, Milan, 1826); Grove (8vo, Lond. 1878, &c.); Mendel, Conversations-Lexikon (2d ed. Berlin, 1881, &c.); Riemann (8vo, Leip. 1882); Bisson and Lagarte (8vo, Paris, 1884).
MYTHOLOGY.—Roman and Greek: Smith (3 vols. 1843-48); Roscher (8vo, Leip. 1884, &c.). General: Vollmer (8vo, Stutt. 1836).
NATURAL SCIENCES.—Encyclopédie par Professeurs du Jardin du Roi (68 vols. including plates, Strasburg and Paris, 1816-30); Trewendt's Encyclopädie, a vast work, including Botany, Chemistry, &c., in course of publication.
NAVAL SCIENCE.—Encyclopædia (Phila. 1881), Paasch's Marine Encyclopædia (1893).
PAINTING.—Satclef, Dict. de Peinture (5 vols. Paris, 1792); Bryan's Dictionary of Painters (1858); Champlin and Perkins, Cyclopædia of Painting (4 vols. 1888).
PHILOLOGY.—B. Schmitz, Encyklopädie der Sprachen (1876); Boeckh, Encyklopädie und Methodologie der philolog. Wissenschaften (8vo. Leip. 1886); Körting,
Encyklopädie und Method. der englischen Phil. (Svo, Heilbronn, 1880), and Encyklopädie und Method. der roman. Phil. (Svo, Heilbronn, 1888); Gröber, Grundriss der rom. Phil. (Svo, Strassburg, 1888).
PHILOSOPHY.—Franck, Dictionnaire (Svo, Paris, 1875); Noack, Handwörterbuch (Svo, Leip. 1877-79); Fleming's Vocabulary of Philosophy, edited by Prof. Calderwood (Svo, Lond. 1887).
PHYSICAL SCIENCES.—Karsten (Svo, Leip. 1857); Rodwell's Dictionary (Svo, Lond. 1871); Lomuel's Lexikon (Svo, Leip. 1882).
POLITICAL ECONOMY.—Macleod (Svo, Lond. 1863); Boccardo, Dizionario (Svo, 1874, &c.); Say, Dictionnaire des Finances (Svo, Paris, 1883).
POLITICS.—Garnier Pagès, Dict. Politique (6th ed. Svo, Paris, 1860); Block, Dict. Gen. de la Politique (2 vols. Svo, Paris, 1863-64); Dict. de l'Admin. Française (Svo, Paris, 1877).
QUOTATIONS.—Dictionary (12mo, Lond. 1824); Dict. Greek, Latin, and Modern Languages (Svo, Lond. 1858); Hoyt and Ward, Cyclopædia, English and Latin, &c. (5th ed. Svo, Lond. 1884); and works of a like kind by Riley (Bohn), Bartlett, Brewer, &c.
RELIGION AND THEOLOGY.—Schenkel's Bibel-lexikon (5 vols. Leip. 1868-75); Blunt's Dictionary (Svo, Lond. 1872); Lichtenberger, Dict. des Sciences Religieuses (Svo, Paris, 1877, &c.); Herzog, Realencyklopädie (22 vols. Svo, Gotha, 1854-68; new ed. by Herzog, Plitt, and Hauck, 18 vols. 1877-88, greatly altered), Eng. ed. by Philip Schaff (Svo, Edin. 1883, &c., with supp.); Addis and Arnold, A Catholic Dictionary (Svo, Lond. 1884); Riehm's Handwörterbuch der Biblischen Altertümer (2 vols. Leip. 1884); Hagenbach's Encyklopädie und Methodologie (11th ed. by Kautsch, 1884); Rübiger's Encyclopædia, translated by Macpherson (Svo, 2 vols. 1884-85); Encyclopædia of Living Divines, by Schaff and Jackson (Svo, Edin. 1887); Benham, Dictionary of Religion (1887); Holtzmann and Zöpffel, Lexikon (2d ed. Leip. 1888).
RURAL SPORTS.—Blaine (Svo, Lond. 1840; new ed. 1870).