Madagascar, the third largest island in the world, is situated to the SE. of Africa, and is about four times as large as England and Wales. It is in — S. lat. and — E. long.; length, 978 miles; greatest breadth, 350 miles; area, about 230,000 sq. m. Although frequently visited by Europeans since the beginning of the 16th century, Madagascar is yet but imperfectly explored. The coasts were carefully surveyed by Captain W. F. W. Owen, R.N., 1823–25; but until lately there has been a great lack of accurate knowledge as to the geography of the interior. Much light has, however, been thrown upon this by a distinguished French savant, M. Alfred Grandidier, who, between 1865 and 1870 explored the island and crossed it in several directions. Since then numerous journeys have been made by members of the London Missionary Society and other missions at work in the country; and the information thus obtained was embodied in a large map of Madagascar prepared in 1879 by Rev. Dr Mlleus. A later map, brought up to the present state of our knowledge of the island, was issued in 1889 by Père Roblet, S.J.
Madagascar consists, as regards its physical geography, of two great divisions—viz. (1) an elevated interior region, raised from 3000 to 5000 feet above the sea; and (2) a comparatively level country surrounding the high land, not much exceeding 600 feet in altitude, and most extensive on the west and south, although there are very lofty mountains extending to the south-eastern extremity of the island. The first of these is composed chiefly of Primary (gneiss and other crystalline) rocks, with enormous quantities of red clay-like earth, consisting of decomposed gneiss. It is a mountainous region, there being very little level ground except in the river-valleys, and some extensive and fertile rice-plains, the dried-up beds of ancient lakes. This interior highland comprises nearly half the total area of the island, and, although central, lies more to the north and east, the watershed running down the eastern side of the island at no great distance from the coast. From this upper region rises the highest mountain-mass, that of Ankarakatra, probably an ancient volcano, whose summits are nearly 9000 feet above the sea-level. The lower region of Madagascar is fertile and well wooded, especially on the eastern side of the island, though a large district in the south is barren. The western side appears to consist of secondary strata of the Cretaceous and Jurassic periods, and here the extensive plains are broken up by three prominent lines of mountain running north and south. From the south-east to the north-west and north a probably almost continuous series of extinct volcanic craters has been traced. These are very numerous near Lake Itasy (19° S. lat. and 47° E. long.), and also in the Bétâfo district, about 50 miles farther south. There are hot springs in many parts of the island. The chief rivers flow west and north-west, and there are many fine bays and harbours on the north-west coast. The largest lake is the Alaotra in the Antsîhànaka province, and a remarkable chain of lagoons extends for about 300 miles along the east coast, south of Tamatave, needing only about 29 miles of canal to connect them all into a continuous waterway.
All round the island is a nearly unbroken belt of dense forest, varying from 10 to 40 miles across, and most largely developed in the north-east. The flora of Madagascar is, therefore, very rich and varied, and contains large numbers of trees producing valuable timber, concessions for working which have lately been granted to several European companies. The flora is divided by Rev. R. Baron, F.L.S., into three regions, the eastern, central, and western, the central region including the elevated interior plateaus. Amongst the most characteristic forms of vegetation are the Traveller's Tree (Ravenala madagascariensis), the Rofia Palm (Raphia ruffia), the Lace-leaf (Ouvirandra fenestralis), the Beef-wood Tree (Casuarina equisetifolia), several species of pandanus and bamboo, and numerous peculiar orchids and ferns. Three-fourths of the species and one-sixth of the genera of the plants are endemic to Madagascar, showing (besides other facts to the same effect) that the island is of very great antiquity. About 4100 indigenous species are now known in Madagascar, and there is one natural order, Chlénacée, with twenty-four species, confined to the island.
The fauna of Madagascar contains several exceptional and ancient forms of life, comprising many species and even genera known nowhere else; but, considering its proximity to Africa, the country is markedly deficient in the larger carnivora and in ungulate animals. It is specially the home of the Lemuridæ, there being about thirty species of this family of Quadrumana, including the very curious Aye-aye (q.v., Cheiromys madagascariensis). It is also the chief habitat of the chameleons, and especially of those species with curious processes on the head, about half of all the known species in the world being found in the island. About 240 species of birds are found in Madagascar, and of the 150 land-birds 35 genera and 129 species are peculiar to it, many of them being unlike any other living forms and of remote affinities. The remains, in a sub-fossil state, of an immense struthious bird (Æpyornis maximus), as well as of some smaller allied species, have been found in several places on the southern coast, together with its eggs, the largest known (12½ in. x 9½ in.). Fossil remains of gigantic tortoises have also been discovered, as well as of an extinct hippopotamus, but smaller than that now living in Africa.
The Malagasy people appear to be mainly derived from the Malayo-Polynesian stock, with which they have numerous affinities; and they have numerous points of connection with the Melanesian tribes, from which the darker element in the inhabitants of Madagascar is probably derived. There is also an admixture of African blood, especially on the western side of the island; and there is an Arab element both on the north- west and south-east coasts. It is further believed that there are traces of an aboriginal race called Vazimba, who appear to have been driven out of the central provinces by the Hova, and whose descendants are still found in one part of the west coast. Accounts are also given of a tribe of people who live in the woods, chiefly on the trees. The Hova, the most advanced, civilised, and intelligent Malagasy tribe, inhabiting the central province of Imèrina, and, since the beginning of the 19th century, the dominant race, are probably the latest immigrants and the purest Malayan in origin. Other important tribes are the Bétisiléo (southern central), Bâra (still farther south), Tanàla (south-east forest), Bétsimisàraka (east coast), Sihànaka (north-east central), and Sàkalàva (along the entire west coast). The eastern and western coast tribes have numerous subdivisions. All the coast peoples appear to be closely connected with each other in language; but, although there are many dialectic differences, the language of the whole country is substantially one, and is evidently nearly allied to those of the Malayan and Melanesian islands. The population of Madagascar is variously estimated at from 2,500,000 to 5,000,000; probably it is intermediate between these two figures.
The Malagasy, not having had their language reduced to a written form until the early part of the 19th century, have no ancient literature; but their numerous proverbs, songs, fables, and folk-tales, and their oratorical abilities, as well as the copiousness of their language, give ample proof of their intellectual acuteness. In their heathen state they are very immoral and untruthful, and cruel in war; but they are also courageous, affectionate, and firm in friendship, kind to their children and their aged and sick relatives, obedient to the law and loyal, very courteous and polite, and most hospitable. While retaining some traditions of a Supreme Being, they practised (and, except in the more enlightened parts of the central provinces, still practise) a kind of fetichism, together with divination, curious ordeals, and ancestor-worship.
The capital, Antananàrivo, is situated centrally in the island, but nearer the eastern side. It has a population of about 100,000, and contains many large and handsome buildings, including the royal palaces, residences of the prime-minister and chief nobles, four stone memorial churches, as well as many others of brick belonging to the London Missionary Society, Anglican and Roman Catholic cathedrals, several colleges and high schools, hospitals and dispensaries, an observatory, court of justice, mission printing-presses, &c. The chief ports are Tamatave, on the east coast, and Mojangà, on the north-west. Ambôhimànga in Imèrina, and Fianàrantsòa in Bétisiléo, are important places in the interior.
The principal exports (£165,000 per annum) of Madagascar are cattle, hides, gum-copal, indiarubber, rafia bast, and rice, and, more recently, ebony and other valuable woods; coffee, sugar, and vanilla are also being cultivated by Creole settlers. The chief imports (£162,000 per annum) are cotton goods, ironmongery, crockery, and run. The principal trade is from the eastern ports to Mauritius and Réunion, and there is also now an increasing trade from the western side of the island with the South African colonies. The soil of the coast plains, especially of the eastern side, is fertile, and could supply large quantities of all tropical productions. Iron is abundant, especially as magnetite, and also as hæmatite and ironstone, and the Malagasy are skilful in the smelting and working of this as well as other metals. Copper apparently exists in great quantity in certain districts, and there also tin is said to be found. Galena is found abundantly near Mount Ankàratra, and from this lead for bullets is obtained, and silver is being extracted from it. Gold of excellent quality has recently been found in many parts of the interior, and is now being worked by foreign capitalists as well as by the native government. Sulphur occurs in beds near some of the extinct volcanoes. There are as yet no roads or wheeled vehicles in Madagascar, so that the country is in some respects very backward, although there is no lack of manual skill among the people, who excel in weaving, in straw-work, and in carpentry, as well as in the working of gold and silver.
Madagascar was known to the early Greek geographers Ptolemy, Arrian, and Marcian under the name of Menuthias; and the Arabian geographer Edrisi apparently describes it under the name of Chezbezat. The island was certainly known to and visited by Arab merchants at least a thousand years ago, and settlements were formed by them, as well as by Indian traders, in very early times; indeed the Arabs have left indelible traces of their influence upon the language, civilisation, and superstitions of the Malagasy. Madagascar is first mentioned under its present name by Marco Polo as Madeigascar or Magastar; but the first European who saw the island appears to have been the Portuguese Fernão Soares in 1506. To the Portuguese, accordingly, was owing the name by which Madagascar was long known in European maps, São Lourenço, but they made no permanent colony there. The Dutch formed settlements for a short time; and the French made persistent efforts for nearly two centuries to maintain military posts on the east coast, but without any permanent success. But they still retain the little island of Ste Marie (east coast); in 1840 they obtained the island of Nôsisé (north-west coast); and in 1883 they went to war with the Malagasy on various pretexts, hostilities being carried on in a desultory fashion for about two and a half years. Eventually a treaty was concluded by which the Bay of Diego Suarez, at the extreme north of Madagascar, was ceded to France, together with the right to place a Resident and other officers at the capital, and other officials at various ports and other places. In 1890 the English government formally acknowledged the French protectorate of Madagascar, but this has never been agreed to by the Malagasy government, and will probably not be acknowledged by them.
Up to the middle of the 17th century Madagascar was divided into a number of independent chief-taincies; about that time, however, the warlike Sàkalàva made themselves masters of the western half of the island, as well as of several interior provinces. But in the early part of the 19th century the Hova, led by two energetic chiefs, Iambôasalàma, afterwards known as Andrianimpoinimerina, and his son Radàma I., threw off the Sàkalàva yoke, and, with the aid of English arms and discipline, made themselves virtually kings of Madagascar. They conquered the eastern, north-western, and central provinces; but the Hova authority is still only nominal in some parts of the island. (In 1889, however, the turbulent tribes of the south-west were brought into submission.) Radàma abolished the export slave-trade, and gave encouragement to English missionaries, who commenced work at his capital in 1820. They reduced the language to writing, gave the people the beginnings of a literature, formed numerous schools, founded Christian churches, and introduced many of the arts of civilised life. But the accession of Queen Rànavàlona I. in 1828 gradually led to repressive measures: the missionaries were obliged to leave in 1836, and a severe persecution of the native Christians ensued, in which numbers perished. Europeans generally were also for some time excluded from the island. The queen's decease in 1861 put an end to this period of terror, and Madagascar was reopened to Europeans at the accession of her son Radàma II. Owing to the young king's follies and to intrigues with the French he was put to death in 1863, and his wife Ràsohérina placed on the throne. During her reign (1863-68) steady advances were made, and treaties of commerce concluded with England, France, and America. Queen Rànavàlona II., who succeeded, and her husband, the prime-minister, identified themselves with Christianity, which was becoming an important power in the country. The queen and her husband and many of the nobles were baptised; and the burning of the royal idols in the following year (1869) caused almost the whole population of the central provinces of Imèrina and Bètsiléo to put themselves under instruction. Since that time about 1600 Protestant Christian congregations have been formed, together with about 1300 schools, with 100,000 scholars, and 280,000 adherents. (It is difficult to obtain any reliable statistics of the Roman Catholic mission; probably their numbers amount to about a fifth or sixth of the above, while of the preceding figures about five-sixths belong to the united missions of the London Missionary Society and the Friends, the others to the Norwegian Lutheran and the English Episcopal missions.) Several colleges and training institutions, as well as hospitals and dispensaries, have been established; and the mission presses issue about 220,000 copies annually of various publications. In 1879 all the African slaves in the country were set free. Queen Rànavàlona III., born in 1862, succeeded in 1883. After the accession of Rànavàlona III. in 1883, the French pressed claims to a protectorate, which after the occupation of Tana-tave were in 1885 conceded. Difficulties led finally to the French expedition in 1895, which, after fearful losses from fever and imperfect commissariat, forced its way to Antananarivo, with almost no resistance from the Hovas. The French protectorate and France's right to military occupation were fully acknowledged. But the French failed to acquire full control over the island, and in 1896 a military governor superseded the civil governor.
See Flacourt's Histoire de Madagascar (1661); History of Madagascar (1838), Three Visits to Madagascar (1858), and The Martin Church (1870), all by W. Ellis (q.v.); the present writer's Madagascar and its People (1870), The Great African Island (1880), and Madagascar Bibliography (1885); Grandidier's Histoire physique, naturelle, et politique de Madagascar (28 4to vols., 1876 et seq.); Guide de l'Immigrant à Madagascar (3 vols. 1900); other French books by Blanchard (1875), Routier (1895), and Catat (1896); and English by Oliver (1886), Cousins (1895), Maude (1895), Knight (1896).