Miniature-painting, or the painting of portraits on a small scale, originated in the practice of embellishing manuscript books (see ILLUMINATION OF MANUSCRIPTS). As the initial letters were written with red lead (Lat. minium), the art of illumination was expressed by the Low Latin verb miniare, and the term miniatura was applied to the small pictures introduced. After the invention of printing and engraving this delicate art entered on a new phase; copies in small dimensions of celebrated pictures came to be in considerable request, and, in particular, there arose such a demand for miniature-portraits that a miniature in popular language came to signify 'a very small portrait.' Soon after their introduction miniatures were executed with very great skill in England. Holbein (c. 1495-1543) painted exquisite miniatures, and having settled in London, his works had great influence in calling forth native talent. The works of Nicholas Hilliard (born at Exeter 1547, died 1619) are justly held in high estimation. Isaac Oliver (1556-1617) was employed by Queen Elizabeth and most of the distinguished characters of the time; his works are remarkable for careful and elaborate execution; and his son, Peter Oliver (1601-47), achieved even a higher reputation. Thomas Flatman (1637-88) painted good miniatures. Samuel Cooper (born at London 1609, died 1672), who was with his brother Alexander a pupil of his uncle, John Hoskins, an artist of reputation (died 1664), carried miniature-painting to high excellence. Cromwell and Milton sat to him; he was employed by Charles II., and obtained the highest patronage at the courts of France and in Holland. Jean Petitot (1607-91) was the first to bring to perfection the art of enamelling as applied to portraiture. There are as many as fifty-eight examples of this great artist in the Jones Collection at the South Kensington Museum. Richard Cosway (1740-1821) was one of the most famous miniaturists of the 18th century.
Robert Thorburn (1818-85) first made his name as a miniaturist, and many others might be mentioned; but the last famous miniature-painter was Sir William Ross (1794-1860), who lived to see his art superseded by photography. The number of his miniatures in existence is said to number over 2200. Of late years public interest in the work of the miniaturist has revived, and several exhibitions of miniatures have been held. Prices have advanced, and it is extremely difficult to obtain good examples. The works of Cosway are especially sought after. Photography may be said to have killed the art, although miniatures have continued to be painted; but enthusiasts hope from the interest now taken in historical specimens that the art may yet be revived. As to technical details, the early artists painted on vellum and used body-colours—i.e. colours mixed with white or other opaque pigments, and this practice was continued till a comparatively late period, when thin leaves of ivory fixed on card-board with gum were substituted. Many of the old miniature-painters worked with oil-colours on small plates of copper or silver. After ivory was substituted for vellum transparent colours were employed on faces, hands, and other delicate portions of the picture, the opaque colours being only used in draperies and the like; but during the 19th century, in which the art has been brought to the highest excellence, the practice has been to execute the entire work except the high lights in white drapery with transparent colours.
See Walpole's Anecdotes; G. C. Williamson, Portrait Miniatures from Holbein to Ross (1898); J. J. Foster, British Miniature Painters and their Work (1898); Russell, Art of Miniature (4th ed. 1878); Wagner, Miniature Painting (Philadelphia, 1876); Foster, 'Some Miniature Painters,' in Antiquary (vols. xiii.-xiv.); J. W. Bradley, Dictionary of Miniaturists (3 vols. 1888-89); and J. L. Propp, History of Miniature Art (1889).