Names

Names are usually classed as either local or personal, but neither class can be profitably studied apart from the other; since the names of places are frequently derived from the names of persons, while numerous personal names prove ultimately to be derived from local names. Thus, Washington, the capital of the United States, derives its name from George Washington the first president; his name in turn was derived from that of a Durham village where his ancestors resided, and this village itself obtained its name from the Wasings, a Teutonic clan. Names must therefore not be regarded as arbitrary signs—they have a meaning and a history, though owing to the absence of early documents the history may be lost, and the meaning may be unascertainable with certainty.

Local names are usually either descriptive, like Red River; personal, like Charleston; historic, like Point Turnagain; or transferred, like New South Wales. Another broad distinction may be drawn between the names of physical features, such as rivers and mountains, which are frequently the memorials of extinct or very ancient races, and the names of villages and hamlets, which are usually of more recent origin, and to a large extent are derived from the personal names of early settlers. Thus, in the United States, while the Red Men have disappeared, or have been withdrawn to remote reservations, they have left behind them such familiar names as Niagara, Ohio, Potomac, Mississippi, Missouri, Huron, Erie, Michigan, Connecticut, and Massachusetts; while places of habitation bear modern names, like Brownsville, Grantstown, or Madison, derived from the names of settlers or politicians. In England also the names of rivers are chiefly ancient and Celtic, while those of places of habitation are mainly recent and Teutonic. There are four rivers in England called Avon, a word which in Celtic means 'river;' while from the Celtic word uisge or wysg, 'water,' we derive the names of the Esk, the Usk, the Exe, the Axe, the Ash, and the Wye; and from dubr, dwfr, or dwr, 'water,' we have the Dove, the Dovy, and probably the four Derwents; while tam, 'wide,' gives us the Tame and the Thames. On the other hand we know that Clapham was the 'home' of the Osgod Clapa, in whose house Harthacnut drank himself to death, while Addlethorpe was the place where Ardulf settled.

All over Europe local names bear witness to races departed or absorbed. Thus, we find traces of Slavs and Celts in Germany, of Romans and Celts in Gaul, of Phoenicians on the Mediterranean coasts, of Arabs in Sicily and Spain. Not a few names attest the early extension of Phœnician commerce. Such are Malta, 'the refuge;' Catania, 'the little' harbour, in Sicily; Carthage, 'the new town;' Carthagina in Spain is Carthago Nova or New Carthage; Seville is the city 'on the plain;' Malaga, 'the place for salting' fish; Tarragona is 'the palace;' Cordova, 'the olive-press;' and Lisbon, 'the walled' town. Arabic names are naturally more numerous both in Sicily and Spain. In Sicily, besides Marsala, 'the port of Allah,' we have several names containing the word kulat, 'a castle,' and ras, 'a cape,' such as Caltanissetta, Caltagirone, Calascibetta, Calatafimi; together with Rasicanzir, Rasicalbo, and Rasacarami. In Spain numerous rivers exhibit the Arabic wadi, 'a river' or 'valley,' in the Spanish form Guad. Such are Guadalquiver, 'the great river;' Guadalaviar, 'the white river;' Guadalupe, 'the river of the bay;' and many others. We find the Arabic article al as a prefix in Algeciras, 'the island,' which is the same name as Algiers; as well as in Almanza, 'the plain;' Almaden, 'the mine;' Alcazar, 'the palace;' Alcantara, 'the bridge.' The province of Algarvé means 'the west;' Alcala is 'the castle;' kulat, 'castle,' so common in Sicily, reappearing in the names of Calatrava and Calahorra. The word Medina, 'a city,' is seen in Medinaceli and Medina Sidonia; while Gibraltar, 'the mountain of Tarik,' preserves the name of one of the earliest invaders.

French cities, unlike those in England, frequently preserve the Celtic names of the Gaulish tribes of which they were the capitals. Thus, Paris was the capital of the Parisii, Ronen of the Rothomagi, Amiens of the Ambiani, Arras of the Atrebrates, Evreux of the Eburovices, Beauvais of the Bellovaci, Lisieux of the Lexovii, Chartres of the Carnutes, Rheims of the Remi, Châlons of the Catalauni, Sens of the Senones, Saintes of the Santones, Soissons of the Suessiones, Troyes of the Tricasses, Limoges of the Lemovices, Poitiers of the Pictons, Tours of the Turones, Cahors of the Cadurci, Toulouse of the Tolosates, while Berri was the seat of the Bituriges. Such names are rare elsewhere, but Trèves (Trier) preserves the name of the Treviri, Turin of the Taurini, Venice of the Veneti, Worcester of the Huicci, Devon of the Damnones.

The way in which the dominion of Rome was established by the foundation of colonies and privileged cities can be traced over the greater part of Europe. The name of Cologne is a corruption of Colonia Agrippina, Lincoln of Lindum Colonia; Lodi was Laus Pompeii, Pampeluna was Pompelo or Pompeiopolis. Friuli and Fréjus are variant corruptions of Forum Julii, Forli of Forum Livii, Jülich of Juliaecum, Lillebonne of Juliabona, Beja of Pax Julia. Badajoz was Pax Augusta, Merida was Augusta Emerita, Saragossa was Cæsarea Augusta. Augsburg, Aosta, Aoust, Augst, and Auch are corruptions of Augusta, Autun of Augustodunum. Klagenfurt was Claudii Forum, Fiera was Forum Aurelii, and Orleans was Aurelia. We find the name of Valentinian in Valenciennes, of Gratian in Grenoble, of Hadrian in Adrianople, of Constantine in Constantinople; while Constance and Coutances bear the name of Constantius. Of the same class are Alexandria, Scanderoon, Antioch, and Seleucia, which recall the dominion of Alexander and his successors.

The Roman cities in Britain are commonly designated by dialectic variations of the Anglo-Saxon ceaster (a word derived from the Latin castra), which is usually appended to a fragment of the primitive Celtic name. Thus, in the Saxon region we have such names as Winchester, Chichester, Dorchester, Rochester, and Colchester. In Mercia we have Gloucester, Worcester, Leicester, Manchester, and Chester. In the Anglian district we find Tadcaster, Lancaster, Doncaster, and on the Welsh or Cornish frontier Wroxeter and Exeter. But many of our larger towns grew up in post-Roman times near the great fords over rivers; such are Oxford, Hereford, Hertford, Bedford, Chelmsford, Guildford, Stafford, Stratford. That only the smaller streams were bridged is shown by the names of Cambridge, Tunbridge, Weybridge, and Uxbridge.

The nomenclature of Teutonic lands—Germany, England, and north-eastern France—fully bears out the description given by Tacitus of the Germans, 'Nullas Germanorum populis urbes habitari, satis notum est; ne pati quidem inter se junctas sedes. Colunt discreti ac diversi, ut fons, ut campus, ut nemus placuit.' Hence the local names in England and Germany differ essentially from those of Italy, France, Spain, Wales, and Ireland in one important respect. The first element is frequently the name of the Teutonic settler who selected his home in field or forest. Round these isolated dwellings villages grew up, and became known as the ton, ham, thorpe, or by of the first settler and his family. Thus, to take a few village-names from a small district in Yorkshire, we find that a man named Asketel settled at Asselby and another at Haisthorpe, Anlaf at Anlaby, Bardolf at Barlby, Dugald at Duggleby, Fulchar at Foggathorpe, Gamal at Ganton, Lambi at Langthorpe, Miöll at Millington, Rether at Raisthorpe, Hrolfr at Rowlston, Thorgrinn at Thornthorpe. In like manner the majority of German village-names are derived from the names of the earliest Teutonic settlers. Thus, we find Hrudulf at Rudelsheim, Rudisleben, and Rüdelshausen; Wolfbert at Wolfertshausen; Dietrich at Dietersheim, Dietershausen, and Dietersdorf; Ratbold at Rappoltsweiler; and Ratbert at Rappertweiler.

On the other hand, in Celtic lands—Cornwall, Wales, Ireland, Scotland, and parts of France—a more religious spirit has caused the villages more commonly to bear the name of some local hermit or evangelist, or of the saint to whom the church is dedicated. In Teutonic lands such names are rare, and, as in the case of St Albans or St Edmundsbury, St Gallen or Glarus (St Hilarius), they commonly refer to a town which has grown up under the shadow of some great monastery. In many parts of France such names are more common, as in the case of St Omer, St Denis, St Cloud, St Malo, St Privat, St Didier, St Cyr, and about 6000 other names. In Ireland some 2700 names begin with Kil, which denoted a 'church,' or a monastic 'cell.' Thus Kilkieran is the church or cell of St Ciarran, Kilkenny of St Cannech, Kilbride of St Brigid, Kilskeer of St Scire, Killaloe of St Lua or Dalua, and Kilkee of St Caeide. In the Celtic part of Scotland we have a fair number of such names, though not so many as in the Isle of Saints; such, for instance, are Kilmarnock, Kilfinan, Kilpatrick, and Kilsyth. Kirk ('church') is common in the Teutonic part of Scotland, as in Kirkcudbright, Kirkcaldy, and Kirkpatrick. This prefix is also found in the north of England, where we have 34 villages called Kirby or Kirkby ('church village'). In the south of England church occasionally is found as a suffix, as in Bonchurch and Whitechurch; while in Axminster, Kidderminster, Leominster, and Westminster the suffix denotes a monastic foundation. In Wales the ecclesiastical prefix is usually Llan, meaning an 'enclosure.' Thus, Llandudno is the church of St Tudno, Llanberis of St Peris, Llangollen of St Collen, Llanfair of St Mary, Llanbadarn of St Padarn, Llanilltyd of St Illtyd. All the Welsh sees, Llandaff, St Davids, St Asaph, and Bangor ('the white choir'), are named from churches, whereas every English see, except the modern see of St Albans, bears a name of secular origin. A very large number of Indian towns take their names from the temple of some deity; Bombay, for instance, is a corruption of Mambai, a goddess to whom an ancient temple was dedicated, and Calicut is Kali's fortress.

Names derived from conspicuous trees or the nature of the vegetation are everywhere common. From the oak we have such English names as Acton, Aclam, and Auckland; such Celtic names as Derry, Kildare, and Darrock; while there are about 200 Slavonic places called Dubran. Those in England named from the ash, such as Ashby and Ashton, amount to nearly the same number; but there are only 27, such as Appleby and Appleton, named from the apple, and 11 from the birch. The Slavonic name of the birch (brasa) gives its name to 40 places; the lime (lipa), to upwards of 200, including Leipzig, while in England we have Lyndhurst, Linton, and a few more. We obtain Alder-shot and Olney from the alder; Thorney from the thorn; Bromley from the broom; Rusholme from the rush; and Farnham and Farnborough from the fern. Selinus, one of the greatest of the Greek cities in Sicily, took its name from the wild parsley. There are also names from animals; from the fox, for instance, we have Lochmaddy, Todmorden, and Foxholes. Many towns take their names from the rivers on which they stand. In England we have Exeter on the Exe, Axminster on the Axe, Okehampton on the Oke, Taunton on the Tone, Maidstone on the Medway, Plymouth, Dartmouth, and Falmouth on the Plym, Dart, and Fal; while Hull, properly Kingston-upon-Hull, has usurped the name of the river Hull. In Asiatic Russia Tomsk, Tobolsk, and most of the chief towns are thus named.

The commonest suffixes in English place-names, denoting habitation or enclosure, are -ton, -ham, -worth, -stow, and -bury in the south, and -by, -thorpe, -toft, -garth, and -thwaite in the north. The patronymic suffix -ing, either alone, as in Woking and Barking, or combined with -ton or -ham, as in Buckingham and Birmingham, Islington and Kensington, denotes the settlement of a family or clan. The more usual suffixes not denoting habitation are -ey, -ley, -field, -ford, and -bridge. One of the commonest English village-names is

Newton. There are 120 Newtons, 17 Newbiggins, 12 Newports, 11 Newbolds, 11 Newnhams, and 10 Newcastles. Burton, which means an enclosure on a burh or hill, occurs 66 times; Barton (bere-tun), a grange or enclosure for corn or barley, occurs 45 times. Hutton, an enclosure on a hoo or projecting heel of land, is also very common. There are also 77 Suttons, 57 Nortons, 36 Westons, and 14 Eastons. The settlements of the Danes in Ireland are marked by the names of such important towns as Waterford, Wexford, Carlingford, Limerick, and Wicklow; and three out of the four Irish provinces, Leinster, Ulster, and Munster, where the suffix -ster means a settlement or district. In Normandy the Danish suffixes -by, -toft, -thorpe, and -fleet appear in the forms of -bauf, -tot, -tourp, and -fleur, as in Marbeuf, Quillebeuf, Ivetot, Clitourps, Harfleur, and Honfleur. The usual suffixes in German names are -weiler, -leben, -hof, -hausen, -heim, -dorf, -wik, -stadt, -burg, -bold, -hall, -sitz, -ing or -ingen, all of which denote habitation or enclosure, while -ried or -rode signifies a clearing, and -wald, -holt, -feld, and -hain refer to uninhabited places.

In Celtic names, contrary to the Teutonic practice, the substantival element comes first, and the adjectival last. Thus, Cwmbechan is Celtic, Addiscombe is English, Dalry is Celtic, Rydal is English. The commonest element in Irish names is baile (Anglicised bally), meaning 'a town-land' or 'village', which is found in the names of 6400 Irish town-lands. Very frequent also are Lis, Rath, Dun, and Caher, Caer, or Car, which denote 'fortified places'; Bod and Tigh (Welsh Ty), 'a house'; Tre, common in Cornwall, means 'a village'; Kil means 'a church'; Ath, 'a ford'; Coed and Coil, 'a wood'; Clon, Agh, Gort, Blair, and Magh or Moy denote 'fields and plains'; Ben, Pen, Cenn, Stieve, Drum, Cefn, Bryn, Mull or Moel, Ard, Tulla, Knoek, Ros denote 'hills and ridges'; Strath, Glen, Nant are 'valleys'; Carrick or Craig means 'a rock'; Muen and Clogh, 'a stone,' the plural Cloghan denoting either 'stepping-stones,' or the 'gravestones' in a churchyard; Inis or Inch is 'an island'; Cul or Cool, 'a corner'; Tober, 'a well'; Rhos, 'a moor'; Tra, 'a strand' and Lough, Loch, or Lyn, 'a lake.' Of the adjectival components the commonest are mor, 'great'; beg, 'little'; garw, 'rough'; glas and liath, 'green' or 'gray'; dubh, 'black'; gorm, 'blue'; buidhe or boy, 'yellow'; dcarg, 'red'; gal and ban, 'white.' Thus, Benmore is 'the great hill'; Balfour, 'the cold town'; Ardglas, 'the gray height.'

In Turkish names the commonest components are koi, 'village'; hissar, 'castle'; serai, 'palace'; kopri, 'bridge'; hamman, 'hot baths'; bazar, 'market'; dagh, 'mountain'; bagh, 'garden'; su, 'water'; ermak, 'river'; denghis, 'sea'; ili, 'district'; with the qualifying elements yeni, 'new'; eski, 'old'; kara, 'black'; ak, 'white'; kezil, 'red'; ala, 'beautiful'; bala, 'high.' Thus, we have Yeni-koi, 'new village'; Eski-bazar, 'old market'; Kara-su, 'black water'; Ak-serai, 'white palace'; Bala-hissar, 'high castle'; Kezil-ermak, 'the red river'; Ak-dagh, 'white mountain'; Mus-tagh, 'snowy mountain'; Ala-bagh, 'beautiful garden.' Chinese names are usually easy to explain. We have names from colours, such as Hoang-ho, 'yellow river,' and Hoang-hai, 'yellow sea'; from position, such as Nan-king, 'southern capital'; Nan-shan, 'southern mountains'; Ho-nan, 'south of the river'; Yun-nan, 'south of the clouds'; Tong-king, 'eastern capital'; Shan-tung, 'east of the mountain'; or from size, as Ta-kiang, 'great river.'

Countries often take their names from some small district which first became known to the outer world; from some ruling or conquering tribe; or from relative position. Thus, Asia originally denoted only the plain of Ephesus, Africa the plain of Carthage, Europe the plain of Thebes. India derives its name from the people who dwelt on the banks of the Indus; Switzerland from the village of Schwyz; Peru from a small stream near Panama, 800 miles north of the present boundary; Italy from a district in Calabria which first became known to the Greeks; Greece from a tribe in Epirus, probably not of Greek race, who first came in contact with the Romans; Russia from a Finnic corruption of the Swedish name of the vikings who occupied Novgorod; Hungary, Bohemia, and Bavaria from a temporary occupation by Huns and Boii; Scotland from the Scots, an invading Irish sept; England from the Angles; France from the Franks, a German tribe whose chiefs founded the ruling dynasty; Sweden and Denmark from the Suiones and the Danes; Palestine from the Philistines who occupied the portion of the coast which first became known to the Greeks; and Portugal from Oporto, the first part of the modern kingdom to be conquered from the Moors. Spain is the land from which the Phoenicians obtained the skins of 'rabbits'; Brazil is the land which yielded the braza, a valuable dye-wood; Poland means 'the plains'; Lorraine takes its name from Lothair, Bolivia from the liberator Bolivar, China from the T'sin dynasty; Japan and Anatolia are both 'lands of the rising sun'; the Deccan is 'the south country'; Norway, 'the northern route' taken by the vikings; Austria is 'the Eastern realm'; Westphalia, the land occupied by the inhabitants of the 'western plain' of the Weser. Northumberland was originally the whole district north of the Humber; Sutherland, Surrey, Suffolk, Sussex, Norfolk, Northampton, Essex, Wessex, and Westmorland are all named from their position.

Nations are frequently called by their neighbours by a name different from that by which they designate themselves. Thus, Germany is a name borrowed by the Romans from the Gauls, and is applied to a country called Deutschland by its inhabitants, who designate themselves as Deutsche, 'the people,' while the Slavs call them Niemiec, which means the 'dumb' or 'unintelligible' people. Their French name is derived from that of the Allemannic frontier tribe; the Magyars call them Swabians, the Finns and Gypsies call them Saxons. The Welsh call us Saxons, while we call ourselves Englishmen. Welsh is a general term meaning 'foreigners,' applied by Teutonic races to non-Teutonic tribes. We apply it to the Cymry, the Germans apply it to Italians. Cornwall, properly Corn-wales, is the land inhabited by the Welsh of the horn; Walloon and Wallachian are Teutonic names used to denote neighbouring races speaking neo-Latin dialects. Those whom we call Lapps call themselves Sabme. Those whom we call Finns call themselves Quains or Suomalaiset, and by the Russians are called Tschuds, which means 'foreigners' or 'barbarians.' The people who call themselves either Slavs, 'the speakers,' or Serbs, 'kinsmen,' were called by the Germans Wends, which means 'foreigners' or 'strangers.'

The map abounds with names which record recent discovery or settlement. The Straits of Magellan, Torres Strait, the Bermudas, the islands of Juan Fernandez and Fernando Po bear the names of Spanish and Portuguese explorers; Cape Horn, the Orange River, New Zealand, New Holland, the Gulf of Carpentaria, and Tasmania or Van Diemen's Land bear witness to the enterprise of the Dutch; Montreal, Detroit, New Orleans, Louisiana, and St Louis to French colonisation in America; Behring Strait bears the name of a Dane in the Russian service; while Hudson Bay, Baffin Bay, Davis Strait, Cook Strait, Bass Strait, Vancouver Island bear the names of

English explorers. Jamestown, Charleston, Carolina, Albany, New York, and Pennsylvania date from the time of the Stuarts, while Virginia points to an earlier, and Georgia to a later period.

In attempting to discover the meaning of names it is essential to discover the oldest forms—phonetic corruption, assimilation, and popular etymology having often disguised the modern forms beyond recognition. Thus, in the case of Brighton, the ancient form Brihtelmes-stan shows that Brigh, the first syllable, is the genitive of the proper name Brihthelm, and that the second syllable is not ton but stone, the name probably referring to a stone house built by an early Saxon settler. So Thornthorpe is shown by its old form to have nothing to do with the thorn-tree, but to be the thorp of Thorgrimr, while Westow is the 'woman's place.' Drypool is Driptol, the muddy or dirty pool and not the dry pool; Thixendale takes its name from the sixteen dales which form the township; Durham is an assimilated form from Dunholm, and Stepney from Stebenhithe.

The old dative or locative suffixes which occur in the early forms of so many English and German names have been either disused or assimilated to other usual suffixes. Thus, the locative Wellon ('at the wells') has become Welham, Huson ('at the houses') has become Howsham, Colnun ('at the summits') is now Cowlam, Chillon ('at the springs') has become Killham, Aclun ('at the oaks') is now Acklam, Fivelac ('five pools') is Filey, and Rodestain ('rood-stone') is now Rudston. These instances may suffice to show that it is of little use to guess at the meaning of the name from mere modern forms; it is only when the ancient form of the name has been recorded that the meaning can be ascertained with certainty.

Personal names as a rule are less obscure in their origin and meaning than local names, but owing to their tendency to transference and migration they are more liable to degradation and mutilation. Thus, John, Gian, Hans, and Ivan are derived from Joannes; Sandy and Alec from Alexander; Jim, Iago, James, and Hamish from Jacob; Beppo, Seppi, Fifine, and Joe from Joseph; Peggy, Gretchen, Maggie, and Madge from Margaret. The origin of most of our names now in common use is either Semitic, Greek, Latin, Teutonic, or Celtic. To these five classes we may therefore direct our chief attention.

The old Semitic names were frequently compounded with the names of deities, as is seen in the names of Babylonian and Assyrian monarchs. The name of Nebuchadnezzar is a prayer, 'Nebo defend the crown.' Nebushasban means 'Nebo save me;' Merodach-baladan is 'Marduk gave a son;' Abednego means 'the servant of Nebo;' Mordecai is 'belonging to Marduk;' Shalmaneser, 'Shalman is favourable.' The names of the Assyrian kings, Assur-bani-pal, Assur-dān, Assurnatsir-pal, contain the name of the eponymous god of Assyria. Many Hebrew names were formed on the same principle. Thus, Obadiah means 'the servant of the Lord' (Jehovah); Abdiel, 'the servant of God' (Elohim); Tobias or Tobiah, 'the Lord is good;' Abijah, 'the Lord is a father;' Ahijah, 'the Lord is a brother;' Jehu, 'the Lord is He;' Nehemiah, 'the Lord comforteth;' Joel, 'the Lord is God;' Elijah, 'God is the Lord.' Many Hebrew names thus compounded, such as Elizabeth, Samuel, Daniel, Josiah, Joshua, and John (Jehohanan, 'whom Jehovah gave'; Gr. Ioannes), have become common among ourselves, together with a few, such as Mary, James, Ann, and Thomas, which do not contain the divine names. Modern Arabic names are derived either from those of the Old Testament, as Moussa, Yacob, Yusuf, Suleiman, and Ayoub (Job); or, like Ali, Hassan, Fatima, and Mohammed, from the family of the Prophet; or from bynames of the Prophet, like Achmet (Ahmed), 'the praised.' Many are compounded with divine titles, like Abdel-Kader, 'the servant of the Holy One;' or Abdel-Raman, 'the servant of the Exalted One.'

A Greek, like a Hebrew, bore only one name, though he might be described, for distinction, by the name of his father or of his birthplace, as Thucydides the Athenian, or Alcibiades the son of Clinius. The name of the eldest son was frequently the name or a variation of the name of that of the paternal grandfather. The usage of bearing only a single name led to the great variety of Greek names, in the invention of which much ingenuity was displayed. Such are Aristarchus, 'the best governor;' Agathocles, 'good fame;' Alexander, 'the helper of men;' Philippus, 'the horse lover;' Philemon, 'the lover of thought;' Aristobulus, 'best counsel.' Of similar construction are Demosthenes, Plutarch, Callicrates, Archimedes, Archimachus, Anaxander. There are also patronyms in -ides, as Aristides and Anaxandrides.

The Romans seem at first to have borne only one name, but at a very early period they adopted the Sabine practice, using a prenomen or personal name, such as Titus, Quintus, or Marcus, followed by a gentile or tribe name, ending in -ius, such as Julius, Claudius, or Tullius. This, in the case of patricians, was followed by a cognomen, usually derived from some personal peculiarity, such as Caesar, Cicero, Naso, Torquatus. Thus, in the case of Marcus Tullius Cicero, Marcus is the prenomen, Tullius the nomen, and Cicero the cognomen. Occasionally, in the case of distinguished personages, an honorific agnomen, or second cognomen, was added, such as Africanus or Germanicus. A man might be called by the prenomen or the cognomen, or by the prenomen and nomen, or by the prenomen and cognomen. Thus, Caius Julius Caesar might be called either Caius, or Caesar, or Caius Julius, or Cains Caesar, but our modern appellation Julius Caesar would have been contrary to Roman usage.

The old Tentic names were compounded of two elements, a substantive and an adjective, usually expressing the characteristics most prized by a fierce and warlike race. The commonest components are bern, 'bear;' wulf or ulf, 'wolf;' arn, 'eagle;' her or hari, 'warrior;' helm, 'helmet;' gar, 'spear;' stan, 'stone;' wine, 'friend;' wald, 'power;' mund, 'protection;' rath or red, 'counsel;' grim, 'fierce;' hard, 'stern;' bald, 'bold;' adal or ethel, 'noble;' hrod or rod, 'glorious;' bert, 'bright.' Thus, Bernard is 'the stern bear;' Arnold, 'eagle strength;' Roger, 'glorious spear;' Richard, 'stern might;' Robert, 'glorious brightness;' Albert, 'noble brightness;' Alfred, 'noble peace;' Athelstan, 'noble stone;' Edmund, 'noble protection;' Ethelred, 'noble counsel.'

The Teutonic name system prevailed among the Franks, Burgundians, and Normans in France, the Goths and Lombards in Italy and Spain, as well as in England, Germany, and Scandinavia. Hence we get such French names as Louis (Hlodwig) and Lothair (Hlodochar), with Italian names, such as Humberto and Garibaldi, and Spanish names, such as Gonzalo and Fernando. In England a complete change came in with the Norman conquest. In the early entries in the Durham Liber Vitæ we find only such Anglian names as Herebald, Cynbert, Edwin, Arkel, and Bernulf. In the Durham Boldon book, compiled about a hundred years after the Conquest, Norman names, such as William, Robert, Walter, and Ralph, are usual among tenants, but the fathers of these men, when their names are recorded, are mostly of the old English type, such as Osbert and Turkil.

In 1380, when Bishop Hatfield made his survey of the same manors, the old English names had disappeared. No less than 40 per cent. of the men are named John, followed by William with 22 per cent., while, if we add Robert and Thomas, 80 per cent. of all the men's names are accounted for. In the West Riding poll-book of 1379 John also heads the list, and more than half the men are called either John, William, Thomas, or Richard. In the 13th century William is the commonest name, in the 14th and following centuries John is first, with William second, till after the Revolution of 1688 William resumed, and has ever since retained the first place. This popularity of John, a name hardly to be found in Domesday, is believed to be due to the supposed suitability in baptism of the Baptist's name. So Jordan was a name commonly given to children who were baptised in water which had been brought from the Jordan by pilgrims or crusaders. The prevalence of William is due to William the Conqueror, of Robert to sympathy with the misfortunes of his son. Thomas came in with the murder of the great archbishop; the crusading exploits and the imprisonment of Richard I. made the name popular, while to the adventures of the paladins we owe Roland, Roger, and Reginald. In the 14th century Charles, James, and George are almost unknown, and even Henry is unusual. Charles only became popular after the execution of Charles I., and George came in with the Hanoverian dynasty. In the 14th century Mary, Sarah, and Ann, now so common, are scarcely to be found, and Elizabeth usually appears in the form of Isabella. One-third of the women are named either Agnes or Alice. If to these we add Joan, Margaret, Isabella, Cecilia, and Matilda, 75 per cent. of the women are accounted for. The great vogue of Agnes and Alice is explained by popular metrical legends. In the time of Charles I. Agnes has descended from the first place to the tenth, and Alice from the second to the sixth. Ann and Elizabeth now head the list, followed by Jane, Margaret, Mary, Alice, Isabel, Dorothy, and Ellen, in the order named, while Sarah is seventeenth. It may be noted that it was not till after the Restoration that two baptismal names were given to the same person.

Surnames were of very gradual introduction. In the case of Ethelred the Unready, Edmund Ironside, or Harold Bluetooth, we have not surnames, but mere nicknames, which did not descend to the children. Hereditary surnames make their appearance in the 12th century, in the 14th they are usual rather than exceptional, and even now in the mining districts of England and in some parts of Wales they are not universally used. It is easy to detect the process by which surnames were introduced. Thus, at the end of the 14th century we have Richard Johnson, son of John Richardson, where Johnson and Richardson are plainly descriptions or designations, but not true surnames. In the next generation Johnson would become the surname. In the same century we find families whose members are designated as John Smyth, son of Thomas Wright, Agnes Smythwyf, and Alice Smythdoghter. We may detect the origin of such residential surnames as Wood, Green, Lane, Townshend, Yates, and Wells in the descriptive entries John at the Wode, William by the Green, Alice in the Lane, Agnes at the Townend, Richard by the Kirkgate, Thomas at the Welle. Other names, chiefly those of tradesmen and artisans, indicate recent migration, such as John of Doncaster, or William of York, while among the franklins and esquires we find territorial surnames such as John de Cawood of Cawood. In addition to these residential and territorial surnames, patronymics, such as Jones, Johnson, and Jenkins, are innumerable. There are also nicknames like White, Hogg, and Goodfellow, which have become hereditary; surnames of office, such as William le Mayor and Robert le Falconer; and a very large class of names of occupation. Thus, the surnames Lister, Walker, Dyer, Fuller, Tozer, Tucker, and Webster all refer to the manufacture of cloth; Skinner, Barker, Lorimer, and Sadler to that of leather.

The oldest Celtic names resemble the Teutonic names in their construction. Thus Dumnorix may be translated 'the world king;' Toutorix, 'the tribe king;' Vergobretos, 'the excellent judge;' Cunobelinus (Cymbeline), 'the war chief;' Boadicea, 'the victorious.' At a later time we get names of another description, such as Ruadhri (Anglicised Rory), 'the red;' Buidhe (Anglicised Boyd), 'the yellow;' Cumara, 'the sea-hound' (whence MacNamara); Scolaidhe, now Scully, 'the reciter' or 'story-teller;' Bhaird, now Baird, 'the bard;' Taidhg, now Teague and Tighe, 'the poet;' and Liagh, now Legge, 'the physician' or 'leech.' With the introduction of Christianity we get names of another class, as Taggart (a corruption of sacerdos), 'the priest.' From maol, 'a tonsured servant,' we have such names as Malone, Malony, and Mulready. Malcolm means 'the tonsured servant of St Columba.' From giolla (Anglicised as gillie), 'a youth' or 'servant,' we obtain Kelly, 'the servant;' Gilchrist, 'the servant of Christ;' Gillespie, 'the servant of the bishop;' Gilfil, 'the servant of St Paul;' Gilbride, 'the servant of St Bridget;' Gilroy, 'the red-haired servant.' Maq or Mac, 'son,' which in Welsh becomes Map and Ap, has given rise to a host of patronymic surnames. Maclean is Mac-giolla-Ean, 'the son of the servant of John.' Mackay, Magee, and Kay are corruptions of MacAedha; Kegan is MacEgan, Quain is MacIan (Johnson), Kew is MacHugh, Keary and Carey are MacCiardha, Quin is MacCoinn, Quirk is MacCore, Kane and Caine are MacCathain, Cleg is MacLeagh, Cayley is MacCaolaidhe, and Macpherson means 'the son of the parson.' So in Wales Price and Bryce are Ap Rhys, Powell is Ap Howel, Pugh is Ap Hugh, Parry and Barry are Ap Harry, Bowen is Ap Owen, and Bevan is Ap Evan (Johnson). The Irish ua, 'grandson' or 'descendant,' which has become O', has also given rise to innumerable patronymic surnames, but is not found in Scotland or the Isle of Man.

It may be mentioned that in England any one may take another surname or as many surnames as he pleases without either an act of parliament or royal license.

The literature of the subject is very extensive, but for the most part is either obsolete or uncritical. Three painstaking monographs, Förstemann's Altddeutsches Namenbuch, Joyce's Origin and History of Irish Names of Places, and Moore's Surnames and Place-names of the Isle of Man, may be almost unreservedly commended. The Etymologisch-geographisches Lexicon of Dr Egli is fairly comprehensive, dealing with more than 17,000 names, and, though not invariably accurate, is a useful book of reference. Dr Taylor's Words and Places and Mr Bardsley's English Surnames are less technical, and cover a wide field. Lower's Patronymica Britannica, Cocheris' Les Noms de Lieu, Buttmann's Die Deutschen Ortsnamen, Miss Yonge's History of Christian Names, Miss Blaikie's Dictionary of Place-names, and two books by Mr Ferguson, Surnames as a Science and The Teutonic Name System, may also be consulted, always with caution, though usually with advantage.