Peru, a republic of South America, extending from near 2° to 17° 20' S. lat. Previous to the annexations by Chili, the Peruvian territory stretched southward to 22° 10', with a length along the Pacific coast of 1400 miles, and a width of 300 miles. It borders on the Pacific, Ecuador, Brazil, Bolivia, and Chili. The area is roughly estimated at 500,000 sq. m. There has been no census since 1876, but the population (believed to be stationary owing to infant mortality and other causes) was in 1895 stated at 2,730,000; the aboriginal Inca Indians forming 57 per cent., the Mestizos or half-castes 23 per cent., and the people of pure Spanish descent, negroes, Chinese, &c., 20 per cent. Peru is still the country of the Inca people.
Surface of the Country.—The surface of Peru is extremely varied. It is divided longitudinally into three well-marked regions. (1) The Coast extends from the base of the Andes to the Pacific Ocean, and consists of a sandy desert crossed at intervals by rivers, along the banks of which there are fertile valleys. (2) The Sierra, or region of the Andes, about 250 miles wide, contains stupendous chains of mountains, elevated plains and tablelands, warm and fertile valleys and ravines. (3) The Montaña, skirting the eastern slopes of the Andes, is the third region. It consists of tropical forests traversed by great tributaries of the Amazon. The coast region has been upraised from the ocean at no very remote period. The absence of rain on this strip of land between the mountains and the sea is caused by the action of the lofty uplands of the Andes on the trade-wind. Reaching the snow-capped summits the last particle of moisture is wrung out of the wind that the very low temperature can extract, and it rushes down to the Pacific coast, cool and dry. Its moisture is deposited as snow on the tops of the cordillera, and feeds the mountain-streams which flow down to irrigate the coast-valleys. From November to
April there is usually constant dryness on the coast, from June to September the sky is obscured for weeks by mist, sometimes accompanied by drizzling rain. The maximum temperature is about 78° in summer and 60° in winter. When it is hottest and driest on the coast it is raining heavily in the Andes, and the rivers are full. When the rivers are lowest mists and garuas or drizzling rains prevail on the coast. The deserts are divided from each other by forty valleys of great fertility, and the cultivable area on the coast might be considerably extended by irrigation. The coast has few protected anchorages, and the headlands are generally abrupt and lofty. This region is subject to frequent and severe earthquakes, the most destructive in modern times having been that of 1868, which nearly destroyed Arequipa and Arica, and that of 1877. Since 1570 there have been seventy destructive earthquakes recorded on the west coast of South America.
The Peruvian Andes contain peaks attaining heights of 21,000 and 22,000 feet; but they have never been measured with scientific accuracy. The mountain-system consists of three chains or cordilleras. Two of these chains, running parallel and near each other, are of identical origin. The western one is the maritime cordillera and comprises the volcanoes. The eastern cordillera is a magnificent and almost continuous range, in great part of Silurian formation, with clay-slates and eruptive granitic rocks. The western cordillera is cut through by several streams which flow into the Pacific, and the eastern cordillera by six tributaries of the Amazon, but the central chain is an unbroken water-parting. It consists mainly of crystalline and volcanic rocks, on each side of which are strata of aqueous, in great part of Jurassic, rocks. The valleys and plateaus between these ranges form the Sierra of Peru, and include every variety of climate and scenery. They may be divided, from a geographical point of view, into four sections, commencing from the north. The first, 350 miles long by 100 broad, comprises the upper basins of the Marañon and Huallaga. The second extends for 200 miles from Cerro Pasco to Ayacucho, including the lake of Chinchay-cocha and the valley of Jauja. The third extends for 250 miles to the knot of Vilcañota, comprising the upper valleys of the Apurimac, the Vilcamayu, and the Paucartambo. Here is Cuzco, the capital of the Incas, the centre and heart of Peru. The fourth section is the basin of Lake Titicaca, about 150 miles in length and breadth. The lake itself is 80 miles long, and 12,545 feet above the level of the sea. A number of rivers, which are of considerable volume during the rainy season, fall into it, and it is drained by the Desaguadero flowing out of the south-west angle. But a great proportion of the water is also taken up by evaporation, and the waters are gradually receding. The Sierra of Peru is the original home of the potato. Its lofty heights also produce several other edible roots, and the grain called quinua (Chenopodium quinua), while splendid crops of maize are grown in the valleys. The animals which specially belong to the Peruvian Sierra are the domestic llamas and alpacas, and the wild vicñas. The llamas were the beasts of burden in the time of the Incas, each carrying a weight of about 100 lb. Alpacas have always been prized for their long and soft wool, and are tended with great care, being kept in large flocks. The other animals of the Peruvian Sierra are the taruco or deer, two rodents called viscachu and chinchilla, a native dog, and a fox. The largest bird is the condor, and there is another bird of the vulture tribe called alcemari. Partridges, called putu, and plovers are met with on the lofty plateaus. The large and handsome geese called huachua and huallata, several ducks, a gull, flamingoes, and other wading-birds frequent Lake Titicaca and the banks of the rivers. In the valleys there are many kinds of finches, and a green parakeet has been seen at a height of 12,000 feet above the sea.
The Montaña is the region of tropical forests within the basin of the river Amazon, including the wooded slopes of the eastern watershed of the Andes, which may be called the subtropical portion of the Montaña. This part of Peru is traversed by great navigable rivers. Here the Marañon and Huallaga, after separate courses of 600 and 400 miles respectively, unite and flow eastward to the Brazilian frontier. At 150 miles from their point of junction they are increased by the waters of the Ucayali, a great navigable river with a course of 600 miles. The forests drained by the Marañon, Huallaga, and Ucayali form the northern portion of the Peruvian Montaña. The southern half is watered by streams flowing down from the eastern Andes in the Sierra sections of Cuzco and Titicaca, and forming the Madre de Dios, a great tributary of the Bolivian river Beni, which has not yet been fully explored. The whole length of the Peruvian Montaña, from the Marañon to the Bolivian frontier, is 800 miles. In the subtropical portion, comprising the eastern slopes of the Andes, which sometimes extend for a distance of 60 or 80 miles before they subside into the Amazonian plain, there are very important products. This is the region of the quinine-yielding cinchona-trees, and of the coca (Erythroxylon coca), and here coffee and cacao of the finest quality are cultivated. From the forest-covered plains come india-rubber, sarsaparilla, and a great variety of useful and ornamental timber. The fauna of the forests is naturally much more numerous and varied than that of the Sierra. Here is the silver-gray monkey, the largest in South America, and other species. Bats of several kinds are numerous, and there are flocks of coatis. The Andean bear, called ucumari, is found on the upper borders of the forests. The puma also roams over the higher slopes, where he has an almost undisputed hunting-ground. Lower down there are jaguars, and several kinds of wild cats. Squirrels and other rodents swarm, and the heavy tapir, called danta or gran bestia, reposes in the soft marshy lands. Deer frequent the open ground, and herds of peccaries traverse the forests. The chief game-bird is the large black curassow, and there are several pigeons. Spoonbills, ibis, cranes, snipe, and curlew frequent the lagoons, while parrots, toucans, and other birds of bright plumage are innumerable. Snakes abound among the dense underwood, frogs raise their far-sounding voices through the night, and insects swarm in myriads. But the knowledge of the fauna of the Peruvian forests is still very incomplete.
Productions and Commerce.—The chief crops of the fertile valleys on the coast of Peru are sugar, cotton, and grapes. The exportation of sugar amounted to 45,000 tons in 1889, but it was double that figure in 1879, previous to the disastrous war with Chili. Peruvian cotton is chiefly grown in the valleys of Piura and Ica, and is a perennial. In 1889 the quantity of cotton exported from Piura and Ica was 2,946,400 lb. The vine has been a profitable industry ever since the Spanish conquest, in several valleys on the coast, and also in the Sierra. Good wine is made at Pisco and Ica, and also a famous spirit from the grape, called Pisco and Italia. The yield of wine in 1889 was 17,600,000 pints, and of spirits 5,280,000 pints. Rice of excellent quality is raised in the coast-valley of Lambayeque, and there are establishments for preparing it at Lambayeque and Ferreñafe. In 1889 the crop was 24,750,000 lb. Olives are grown in the Tambo valley near
Arequipa, and before the Chilian war mulberries, silkworms, and cochineal were successfully cultivated. The rocky islets and barren deserts of the coast were once a source of enormous wealth to Peru, but are so no more. The exportation of Gnano (q.v.) from the Chincha Islands began in 1846 and ended in 1872, the supply being exhausted; and the nitrates of Tarapacá were seized and annexed by Chili, as the result of the war.
The staple exports of the Sierra of Peru are silver and wool. The silver-mines extend along the whole length of the cordilleras, and are worked here and there, the great centre of mining industry being at Cerro Pasco. In 1877 the Cerro Pasco mines produced 1,427,592 oz. of silver, and there are others of equal value round Puno, in the south of Pern. In the above year the value of exported silver was £575,000; of copper, £330,000. Up till 1891 there were no later returns; in 1894 the total mineral output was valued at £450,000. There are rich gold-washings in the Carabaya province.
Mollendo is the principal port for the export of wool; but wool is also shipped from Salaverry, Pacasmayo, and Chala. There are no reliable returns of the quantity and value. From the Montaña the exported products are cinchona bark, coca (of which 3044 lb. of leaves were exported in 1889), coffee of the finest quality, cacao, tobacco, india-rubber, sarsaparilla, and some other medicinal roots. Maize is also exported to Chili, and large quantities of wheat are imported from Chili and the United States.
Public Works.—The system of railways consists of a dozen short lines in the coast-valleys—varying in length from 80 to 20 miles, constructed to bring the produce down to the seaports—and of two long lines across the Andes. The first of these, from Callao and Lima to Oroya, in the lofty valley of Jauja, is to be 136 miles long, and was commenced in 1870. It threads the intricate gorges of the Andes by a winding path along the edges of precipices, through tunnels, and over bridges that seem suspended in the air. It tunnels the Andes at an altitude of 15,645 feet, and the bridge of Verrugas (q.v.), finished in 1891 in succession to one destroyed by a flood in 1889, is 250 feet high, and spans a chasm 580 feet wide. Of this railroad 87 miles had been completed at a cost of £4,625,887. The other great line across the Andes connects the port of Mollendo with Puno on the shores of Lake Titicaca, passing by Arequipa. The summit is crossed at a height of 14,660 feet, and the line is 346 miles long. In 1874 steamers were first launched on Lake Titicaca. In order to supply the port of Mollendo with water a pipe has been laid alongside the line from Arequipa for a length of 85 miles, discharging 433,000 gallons in twenty-four hours—the longest iron aqueduct in the world. The construction of these great public works, chiefly between 1868 and 1872, involved the finances of Peru in grave difficulties. Previously the debt, mainly incurred during the war of independence, was £4,400,000, the interest of which was paid from the proceeds of the guano. But by 1872 the debt had been increased to £49,000,000, requiring an annual sum of £2,450,000 to pay the interest. The payment of interest was suspended from 1876 till 1896, having been paid since 1849. The financial difficulties culminated with the disastrous war with Chili, when the nitrate of Tarapacá, the chief resource of Peru, fell into the hands of the enemy.
The People.—The bulk of the Peruvian population is composed of the aboriginal Inca Indians, whose language, called Quichua, is still spoken in the Sierra. The Incas had attained to a high state of civilisation before the arrival of the Spaniards. They cultivated many of the arts, and had some knowledge of astronomy. They had domesticated the llamas and alpacas, had brought under cultivation maize and quinoa, potatoes and many other edible roots, understood mining and the working of metals, and excelled as masons, weavers, potters, and farmers. They brought the science of government to a high pitch of perfection. The Incas composed songs and dramas; and as soldiers their skill and prowess enabled them to conquer and consolidate a vast empire. Three centuries of oppression under Spanish rule have deteriorated the character of the Inca Indian, but he is still industrious and honest, and retains some of the virtues of his ancestors. The wild Indians of the Montaña were never subjugated by the Spaniards. Spanish administration caused a rapid diminution of the population. The Indians of the Sierra were decimated, while those of the coast-valleys disappeared altogether. Negro slaves were then introduced to cultivate the estates in the coast-valleys, and this system continued during Spanish colonial rule, and until 1855. In that year slavery was abolished, and the emancipation of the negro population gave rise to difficulties in obtaining labour. Chinese immigration schemes were resorted to, and from 1860 to 1872 as many as 58,646 Chinese coolies were imported.
Civil Divisions, Cities, and Towns.—Peru is divided into departments, which are subdivided into provinces. On the coast, commencing from the north, the departments are Piura, Lambayeque, Libertad (formerly Trujillo), Ancachs, Lima, Ica, and Arequipa. The capital of Piura is San Miguel de Piura, founded by Pizarro, with a seaport called Payta at a distance of 63 miles. The next department of Lambayeque has a capital of the same name, with three small seaports of San José, Eten, and Pimentel. Libertad has the episcopal city of Trujillo as its capital, which was founded by Pizarro in 1535. The seaports are Huanchaco, Salaverry, and Huañape. Ancachs does not contain any city of note. Lima (q.v.), the capital of Peru, is nearly in the centre of the coast region, and has a population of almost 200,000. The department of Ica, south of Lima, is composed of the two provinces of Ica and Chincha, each with a city, and has its principal seaport at Pisco. Arequipa was for sixteen years the most southern department of Peru, Tacna and Arica being occupied by the Chilean invaders. Besides Mollendo (107 miles by rail from the city of Arequipa), it also has small ports for export at Islay, Quilca, and Chala.
The departments of the Sierra of Peru are Cajamarca, Huanuco, Junin, Huancavelica, Ayacucho, Apurimac, Cuzco, and Puno. Five of these have provinces also in the Montaña; and there are two departments, those of Amazonas and Loreto, entirely in the Montaña. On the coast the houses are built of adobes or large sun-dried bricks, and are flat-roofed. In the Sierra the houses are generally of stone, with high-pitched red-tiled roofs. The most northern department contains the cities of Cajamarca and Jaen. Huanuco has a capital of the same name. Junin contains the mining-town of Cerro Pasco, and the cities of Tarma, Jauja, Concepcion, and Huancayo. Huancavelica is a mountainous department, and its chief town owed its existence to the proximity of a quicksilver-mine. Ayacucho received its name from the battle in which Peru gained her independence. Its chief city of Guamanga, now called Ayacucho, was founded by Pizarro in June 1539. The Apurimac department comprises the two valleys of Andahuaylas and Abancay. Cuzco is the central department of the Sierra of Peru. Its capital was formerly the capital of the Inca empire, and the cathedral and other churches are raised on the palaces of the Incas. A few miles from Cuzco is the warm and fertile valley of the Vilcamayu, containing the delightful towns of Urubamba, Calca, Sicnaní, and Tinta. The department of Puno comprises the basin of Titicaca and the rich province of Caravaya in the Montaña. Its capital, on the north-western shore of the lake, owes its origin and former prosperity to the rich veins of silver ore in the surrounding hills. The other cities of the department are Lampa and Chucuito.
Church and Education.—When the Spaniards conquered Peru the Catholic religion was enforced on all natives, and a determined attempt was made to crush out the modes of thought, traditions, and culture of the Inca civilisation, and to substitute new ideas and beliefs. This destructive system was resolute and well organised, and was in great part successful. Education and literature were in the hands of an intolerant priesthood. The cruel Friar Valverde was made Bishop of Cuzco in 1534. The archbishopric of Lima was created in 1541, and the bishoprics of Guamanga, Arequipa, and Trujillo were added in 1612 and 1614. Swarms of clerics followed the bishops, numerous monasteries were founded, and an inquisitorial system of catechising and punishing penetrated into every village and hamlet in the land. Schools were established in the towns for the education of young Spaniards and half-castes; and the university of San Marcos at Lima, the most ancient in the New World, was founded in 1551. It had professorial chairs of medicine, philosophy, rhetoric, Latin, mathematics, divinity, and for a short time of Quichua—the language of the Incas. In 1793 there were 313 doctors of San Marcos. The college of San Carlos at Lima, which still flourishes, was founded in 1770, and the school of medicine was established in 1792. At Cuzco the university of San Antonio Abad was founded in 1598, and the viceroy, Prince of Esquilache, also endowed the college of San Borja there, for the education of noble Indians. At Arequipa the college of San Geronimo was founded in 1616, for teaching Latin and theology, and similar colleges were founded at Trujillo in 1621 and at Guamanga in 1680. These universities and colleges produced historians and other writers of eminence, the best known in Europe being Dr Peralta y Barnuevo, who wrote Lima Fundada, and Leon Pinelo, the author of a well-known bibliography. In later times, and since the independence, Peru has produced numerous meritorious writers, including the learned Dr Vigil, the antiquary Rivero, the historians Lorente and Palma, the geographers Paz Soldan and Unanue, the poets Marquez, Althaus, and 'Juan de Arona,' and the biographer Mendiburu. Additional colleges have been established in the large towns, and numerous schools in the villages, within the last fifty years. Besides the university of Lima, there are two lesser universities at Cuzco and Arequipa. There are high schools maintained by government in the capitals of the departments. Education is (nominally) compulsory for both sexes, and is free in the municipal public schools, yet but a fraction of the population has attended any school.
History.—From very ancient times there were agricultural communities in the Sierra of Peru, gradually advancing in the arts of government and of peace, and there were people of a different race in the coast-valleys, who were also civilised. The plants they had brought under cultivation, and the animals they had domesticated, are among the proofs of the great antiquity of Peruvian civilisation. Eventually all the different communities were united under one empire, and the Incas, in the course of some five centuries, developed a highly centralised system of government. Civilisation never attained to such a height among any other of the indigenous races of America. The Incas attempted the administra- tion of a purely socialistic government, and their attempt was successful. The great Inca Huayna Capac died, after a long and prosperous reign, at about the time when Pizarro first visited Tumbes. On his death there was a war of succession between his two sons, which had just terminated in favour of Atahualpa when Pizarro (q.v.) landed a second time and marched into the interior. Peru was soon overrun by the Spaniards, and the beneficent rule of the Incas came to an end. At about the time of the assassination of Pizarro the representations of Las Casas (q.v.) respecting the cruel treatment of the Indians had obtained a hearing, and the 'New Laws' were promulgated. The grants conceded to the conquerors were not to be hereditary, all men who had been engaged in civil wars were to be deprived, and personal service from Indians was forbidden. Blasco Nuñez Vela was sent out to Peru as viceroy to enforce these reforms. He landed in 1544, and proclaimed the 'New Laws.' The Spanish conquerors were thrown into a state of exasperation and dismay, and appealed to Gonzalo Pizarro (q.v.) to leave his retirement and protect their interests. The result was that the viceroy was defeated and killed, and Gonzalo virtually became governor of Peru. But he was not recognised by the Spanish government, and an ecclesiastic named Pedro de la Gasca was despatched to Peru, with a commission to restore order. Gonzalo Pizarro was defeated near Cuzco, and beheaded on the battlefield. Gasca reversed the humane legislation advocated by Las Casas, and made a hasty distribution of grants to his followers. The announcement of his awards caused much discontent, but Gasca hurriedly sailed for Spain in January 1550, leaving the country in a most unsettled state, in the hands of the four judges who were his colleagues. He had arranged that the emperor's decree against forced labour should be promulgated after he was safe out of the country. This gave rise to a formidable rebellion, led by Francisco Hernandez Giron. The judges made head against it, but it was not put down until two pitched battles had been fought, and Giron had been beheaded at Lima in December 1554.
The Marquis of Cañete arrived as viceroy of Peru in May 1555. His policy was to employ the unquiet spirits among the Spanish settlers on expeditions of discovery into unknown regions, and to treat the natives with liberality and justice. During the five years of his government he restored order among the conquerors, and established the heir to the Incas in a dignified retirement. But it was Don Francisco de Toledo, the viceroy from 1569 to 1580, whose legislation finally fixed the colonial policy of Spain in this part of the New World. He reversed the kindly treatment of the ancient dynasty which had distinguished the Marquis of Cañete, and unjustly beheaded young Tupac Amaru, the last of the Incas, at Cuzco in 1571. At the same time he wisely based his legislation on the system of the Incas. His elaborate code, called the 'Libro de Tasas,' was the textbook of all future viceroys. He fixed the amount of tribute to be paid by the Indians, exempting all males under the age of eighteen and over that of fifty. He recognised the position of the native chiefs, assigning them magisterial functions, and the duty of collecting the taxes and paying the money to the Spanish officials. But he enacted that one-seventh part of the population of every village should be subject to forced labour, generally in the mines. This was called the Mita system.
It was the habitual infraction of the rules established by Toledo, and the abuse of the Mita, which caused all the subsequent misery and the depopulation of the country. Compliance with the continual demand for treasure from Spain, a demand which was insatiable, was incompatible with humane treatment of the people. For more than two centuries the people of Peru toiled and died. At length their sufferings became intolerable. They rose as one man in the autumn of 1780, and a descendant of the Incas, taking the revered name of Tupac Amaru, placed himself at their head. After a long and formidable resistance the insurgents were finally subdued, and their leader was put to death under circumstances of revolting cruelty. But he did not die in vain. In his fall he shook the colonial power of Spain to its foundation. From the cruel death of the Inca Tupac Amaru may be dated the rise of that feeling which ended in the expulsion of the Spaniards from South America. Some of the demands of the Inca were conceded soon after his death. He was the foremost pioneer of the independence of Peru. The desire for liberty among Peruvians of Spanish descent had its birth in Lima; but Lima was the residence of the viceroy. Here the power of Spain was concentrated. Consequently it was in the more distant colonies of Buenos Ayres, Carácas, and Chili that insurrectionary movements first broke out and that independence was first secured.
At length a fleet under Lord Cochrane (see DUNDONALD), equipped in Chili, brought the Argentine General San Martin to Peru with troops, and the independence of the land of the Incas was proclaimed at Lima on the 28th of July 1821. Another liberating force, from Colombia, under General Bolívar, embarked at Guayaquil, and when the Liberator arrived at Lima, in September 1823, San Martin retired. The Spanish viceroy, La Serna, with his army, retreated into the interior, and the patriots followed on his heels. On 9th December 1824 the decisive battle of Ayacucho was fought, the Spanish viceroy and all his officers were made prisoners, and the colonial government finally gave place to a free republic. Bolívar and his Colombians left the country in 1826, but it was eighteen years before the government became settled. In August 1829 General Gamarra, a native of Cuzco and a hero of Ayacucho, was elected president of Peru, but at the end of his term of office there were troubles which culminated with an attempt to form a Peru-Bolivian Confederation under General Santa Cruz. This was defeated by Peruvian malcontents, aided by a Chilean army, the cause of Santa Cruz and his confederation having been ruined after the decisive battle of Yungay on January 20, 1839. Gamarra again became president, the confederation was dissolved, and a constitution was proclaimed. But Gamarra fell in a deplorable war with Bolivia, and the contentions of his officers caused a succession of civil wars until 1844.
At length a man arose who restored peace to the distracted country. Ramon Castilla was a native of Tarapacá, and was a veteran of Ayacucho. He was brave as a lion, prompt in action, and beloved by his men. His firm grasp of power secured a long period of peace. He was elected constitutional president of Peru in 1844, and ten years of peace followed. Castilla commenced the payment of interest on the foreign debt in 1849. A revised constitution was promulgated in 1856, and the slaves were emancipated. Castilla retired from office in 1862, and died in 1866. The next important event was the election of Colonel Balta. This president held office from 1868 to 1872, during which time public works were undertaken on a gigantic scale with the aid of foreign loans. Don Manuel Pardo, a scholar and a man of letters as well as a statesman, was the first civilian president. He held office from 1872 to 1876, and inaugurated a policy of retrenchment. But it was too late to save the credit of the state, and the payments of interest on the loans ceased in 1876. Pardo reduced the army, regulated the Chinese immigration, promoted the exploration of navigable rivers in the Montaña, organised an efficient plan for the collection of statistics, and actively encouraged literature and education. He was the best president Peru has ever known, and in August 1876 he was peacefully succeeded by General Prado.
In 1879 Peru was confronted with the overwhelming misfortune of a Chilian invasion. Chili coveted the possession of the nitrate deposits in the Peruvian coast province of Tarapacá. A successful defence of Peru depends on the mastery of the sea. Peru had two old-fashioned ironclads. Chili also had two, but of new construction and with thicker armour-plates. One of the Peruvian ironclads was shipwrecked. The other, commanded by the heroic Admiral Grau, a native of Piura, was captured, after a most gallant defence, maintained against the combined attack from the two Chilian ironclads. On the 8th October 1879 he and nearly all his officers fell in defence of the Huascar, the ship on which the fate of their country depended. Tarapacá was occupied after the loss of two well-contested battles. In 1880 the battle of Tacna sealed the fate of that department; and, after the two desperate battles of Chorillos and Miraflores in 1881, Lima itself was occupied by the Chilians. Public works were demolished and private estates devastated along the coast, while in the capital the invaders even destroyed the valuable public library. General Caceres still kept up a patriotic resistance to the invaders in the interior.
In the autumn of 1883 the Chilians induced one of the Peruvian leaders, named Iglesias, to submit to their terms. In October he signed a treaty of peace and was allowed to enter Lima. Tarapacá was ceded to Chili; Tacna and Arica were to be held by Chili for ten years, after which a popular vote should decide whether they were to belong to Peru or Chili, the country chosen paying the other $10,000,000; and there were some articles, favourable to Chili, respecting the guano-deposits. The Chilians evacuated Peru in August 1884, and their nominee, Iglesias, followed them in December 1885. On 3d June 1886 General Caceres, who had gallantly defended his country against the Chilians from first to last, became constitutional president of Peru. His policy was retrenchment and the protection of the Indian population. Payment of interest of the foreign debt had become impossible. But a scheme was arranged in 1890 by which the foreign bondholders formed themselves into a company to receive all the railways for a term of sixty-six years, with mining, emigration, and other privileges. In return the company is to complete the railway system, and cancel the debt through the profits. Peru was slowly recovering from the disastrous effects of a great calamity, when in 1894-95 another insurrection broke out, and a new government was established. In 1898 no steps had been taken for the retrocession of Tacna and Arica, the negotiations as to the method of voting having fallen through.
For the history of the Incas and their civilisation, see the works of Cieza de Leon, Molina, Balboa, Garcilasso de la Vega, Montesinos, and Acosta, all, except Montesinos, translated into English for the Hakluyt Society; also Rivero's Antiquedades Peruanas (with Von Tschudi, Vien. 1851), of which an English translation appeared afterwards at New York; and the histories of Robertson, Lorente, Prescott, Helps, and Winsor (vol. i.), and the travels of D'Orbigny, Squier, Wiener, and Reiss and Stübel. For the Conquest, see, besides Robertson, Prescott, and Helps, the narrative of Xeres, Pizarro's secretary (Eng. trans. Hakluyt Soc.), and the writings of Herrera, Gomara, Zarate, Pedro, Pizarro, and Fernandez. For the period of the viceroy, see Figueroa's Life of the Marquis of Cañete, the
Chronicle of Calancha, and the Memorias de los Vireyes; also the more recent works of Don Ricardo Palmas, published at Lima, and Saldamando's History of the Jesuits in Peru. The documents relating to the great rebellion of Tupac Amaru were published by Angelis at Buenos Ayres, and there are further particulars in the work of Dean Funes; see also Weddell's Voyage dans le Nord de Bolivie, and Markham's Travels in Peru and India (1862). For the war of independence, see works by Stevenson, the Chilian author Vicuña Mackenna, General Garcia Camba, the Memoirs of General Miller (Lond. 1828), the Autobiography of the Earl of Dundonald, and the great biographical work of General Mendiburu; for the war with Chili, narratives from the Chilian point of view by Barros-Arana and Mackenna, and from the Peruvian by Paz Soldan, and the present writer's History of the War between Peru and Chili (1883). For the geography, the Geografía del Peru, by Paz Soldan, and the 3 vols. on Peru by Raimondi are important works. There are further English works on Peru by Hill (1860), Hutchinson (1874), Duffield (1877), Guillaume (1888); French works by Grandidier (1863) and Chérôt (1876); and German works by Wappäus (1864), Tschudi (1866), and Middendorf (3 vols. 1894-95). See also Von Tschudi's Kechua Sprache (1853), the present writer's Quichua Grammar and Dictionary (1863), Middendorf, Die Einheimischen Sprachen Peru's (1890 et seq.), and the present writer's History of Peru (Chicago, 1892).