Philippine Islands, a large insular group forming a northern section of the Eastern Archipelago, from which it is separated by the two profound abysses of the Sulu (Mindoro) and Celebes Seas, 2000 to 4000 fathoms deep. But these seas are enclosed by the three insular chains of Palawan, with Balabac in the north, Sulu in the centre, and Sanguir with Sias in the south, all of which lie in shallow waters, and form a geological connection between the Philippines and Borneo in the south-west and the Philippines and Celebes in the south. The archipelago, which is washed on the east side by the Pacific Ocean (3000 fathoms) and in the north-west by the China Sea (2000 fathoms), lies in 4°-21° N. lat. and 117°-127° E. long., and comprises a vast aggregate of over 2000 islands of all sizes, ranging from mere rocks and reefs to the great lands of Luzon and Mindanao, the former rather more, the latter somewhat less, than 40,000 sq. m. in extent. The other chief members of the group, collectively called Visayas, are Mindoro, 9000 sq. m.; Palawan (Paragua), 5500; Samar, 5000; Panay, 4500; Negros, 4300; Leyte, 3000; Cebu and Bohol, both 1500; Masbate, 1200; total area, 116,000; population variously estimated at from 7,500,000 to 9,500,000.
The archipelago is disposed nearly due north and south, and is essentially mountainous and volcanic, lying in the direct line of the vast igneous chain which sweeps round from Sumatra and Java through the Lesser Sunda groups and the Moluccas northwards to Formosa and Japan. In the Philippines the first link in this system going southwards is the volcanic islet of Babuyan on the north coast of Luzon; but beyond the remarkable volcano of Taal (1320 feet), near Manila Bay, the chain ramifies into an eastern and a western branch, which traverse the whole of the archipelago, and which are continued seawards by the insular chains of Sulu and Sanguir. The eastern branch develops the lofty cones of Mayon (9000 feet) and Bulusan at the south-eastern extremity of Luzon, while the western branch gives rise to those of Malaspina and Bacon in Negros and Camiguin near the north coast of Mindanao; in this island the two chains converge at the head of the Gulf of Davao, where they culminate in Apo (10,400 feet), highest point in the Philippines. These various ranges, which cover nearly the whole surface of the archipelago, leaving room for scarcely any plains except about the lower courses of the rivers, consist mainly of very old eruptive rocks, in many places covered by later tertiary, quaternary, and modern scoriae and lavas. The underground forces are still active, and reveal themselves by tremendous eruptions, such as those of Mayon in 1766 and of Daraga in 1814, and especially by earthquakes, which are almost continuous, keeping the seismographs of the observatory at Manila in a constant state of vibration. Manila itself was nearly destroyed by the earthquake of 1863, which was followed by the disastrous convulsions of 1872 and 1880 at Surigao and in many parts of Mindanao. The navigation of the inland waters is endangered not only by these disturbances, but also by the conflicting currents caused by opposing tidal waves, and by the cyclones, here called typhoons, which range as far south as about 10° N. lat. (see Map at ASIA).
Owing to the parallel disposition of the mountain-ranges, space is afforded for the development of several large rivers, such as the Cagayan (Rio Grande), which drains about one-fourth of Luzon, flowing for 220 miles northwards between the Sierra Madre and the North Cordillera east and west; the Agno and Pampangan on the west side of the same island; and in Mindanao the Agusan (Butuan), navigable by large vessels for over 60 miles, and the Rio Grande di Mindanao, which flows from Lake Magindanao in the centre of the island first south-west then north-east to Illana Bay in the Celebes Sea. This river is joined by the emissaries of several other lakes, and a characteristic feature of the landscape in most of the islands is the large number of lacustrine basins, which send their overflow through short coast-streams to all the surrounding waters. The most important and best known of these emissaries in Luzon are the Pansipit, which drains Lake Bourbon, and the Pasig, which flows from the Laguna de Bay to Manila. Several of the basins appear to be flooded craters, while others are of marine origin, bays and inlets cut off from the sea by the eruptive matter ejected from the neighbouring volcanoes in former geological epochs.
Thanks to the general elevation of the land, and the prevailing sea-breezes, the climate, although moist and hot, is less insalubrious than that of most tropical lands. The fevers are generally of a somewhat mild, intermittent type, and the most dreaded maladies are consumption, dysentery, and anemia; leprosy exists in Luzon, but its ravages are confined to small areas. As elsewhere in the Eastern Archipelago, there are two seasons, a wet and a dry, which are determined by the trade-winds, but which, owing to the peculiar configuration of the land, may be said to go on simultaneously. Thus, for all the southern and western slopes, the south-west monsoon is the wet, the north-east the dry season, the recurrence of these periods being reversed on the opposite slopes of the same ranges. At Manila, which is exposed to the south-west winds, the rains last from June to November, dry weather for the rest of the year; but this succession is elsewhere constantly modified, especially by the trend and altitude of the mountain-chains. On the other hand, the temperature varies little throughout the year, ranging from about 77° F. in December (the coldest month) to 86° F. in May (the hottest month), while the greatest extremes recorded at the Manila Observatory are not more than 25 degrees (66°—91°). But the rainfall varies enormously, from inch in March to 20 inches in August, with a yearly average of 68 to 70 inches.
The indigenous flora, which is nowhere surpassed in variety and exuberance, indicates a long connection of the Philippines with Indo-Malaysia, and more transitory relations with Austro-Malaysia, through Celebes. Thus all the local genera are represented in the Great Sunda Islands and Malay Peninsula, but only very few in the Australasian world; absolutely independent forms are extremely rare, and generally represented only by a single type. Vast spaces are still covered with magnificent primeval forests containing a great number of dyewoods, fine, hard-grained, medicinal and other useful plants, such as ebony, sapan, tamarind, guinguina, the incorruptible magkono (a myrtaceous), banyan, cocoa-nut, pandanus, nipa, and many other palms, bamboo, tree-ferns. Specially numerous are the fibrous plants, such as the gigantic bejuco, the buri, cabonegro, and abaca (Manilla hemp). On the plantations are grown several varieties of rice, maize, sugar-cane, cotton, coffee, and tobacco, the last mentioned second only to that of Cuba. Above 6000 feet the forest and alpine floras are almost exclusively Malaysian, and nearly identical with those of Borneo and Sumatra.
The native fauna is remarkable for the total absence of many large mammals, such as the tiger, elephant, rhinoceros, bear, tapir, orang-outang, which nevertheless occur in the Sunda Islands. Hence the only dangerous animals are the crocodile, snakes, and some other reptiles. The largest wild mammal is the buffalo, and next to it the gibbon, besides which there are several other species of apes and lemurs, three or four varieties of antelope, and a small deer resembling the Javanese muntjac. The carnivora are chiefly represented by several species of civet, the insectivora by the porcupine, and bats and squirrels abound in all the woodlands. Birds are very numerous, and the gallinacean family especially presents some remarkable forms, such as the laburgo (Gallus bankiva) and the buliesigay, noted for its size, courage, and beautiful plumage. An endless variety of forms is also offered by the insect world, while the fresh and marine waters abound in fishes, turtles, molluscs (including both the pearl and mother-of-pearl oyster), sponges (euplectella and other exquisite varieties).
Of minerals the most widely diffused are coal and iron; copper also occurs, as well as gold, lead, sulphur, cinnabar, quicksilver, alum, besides jasper, marble, and fine building stones. Thermal waters, chiefly sulphurous and ferruginous, occur in many places, especially in Luzon. But the mineral resources of the archipelago are little developed, and mining operations are carried on in the most primitive manner.
The original inhabitants of the Philippines were undoubtedly the Negritos (Actas, Atas, Itas), who at one time occupied the whole of the archipelago, but are now reduced to a few isolated groups numbering altogether less than 20,000, scattered over the remoter parts of Luzon, Negros, Mindanao, and several other islands. Half-caste Negrito communities are extremely numerous, this indigenous element having almost everywhere amalgamated with the intruding Indonesian and Malay peoples, who at present constitute the great bulk of the population. The Indonesians (see MALAYS) are mostly 'Infieles' (i.e. pagans), whereas nearly all the Malays are either 'Indios' (i.e. Roman Catholics) or 'Moros' (i.e. Mohammedans). Like the allied races of Sumatra, Borneo, and Polynesia, the Indonesians are distinguished by their tall stature, muscular frames, light-brown complexion, and regular features. Their chief tribes are the Apayaos, Tinguianes, Calanas, Guinaanes, Gadanes, Igorrotes, Ifugaos, and Ilongotes of Luzon, about 60,000 altogether; the Cimarrones, Samars, and others of the Visayas, about 20,000; the Subanos, Manobos, Mandayas, Bilans, Guiangas, and Bagobos of Mindanao, where they are most numerous, 300,000, giving a total of about 380,000 for all the Indonesian tribes. The Moros (Orang-Islam, or Mohammedan Malays) are now reduced to from 250,000 to 300,000, chiefly confined to Palawan and Mindanao (Illanos, Lutancas, Sanguiles). All the rest of the Malays are Indios, or at least nominal Catholics, and comprise two main divisions, the northern Tagals of Luzon, about 3,000,000, and the central Visayas (Bisayas) of the Visayas Islands and parts of Palawan and Mindanao, about 2,500,000. The Tagal and Visayan languages are the most highly developed of all the Malayo-Polynesian forms of speech, and are gradually absorbing all the other numerous dialects of that family current throughout the archipelago.
Discovered in 1521 by Magellan, who was killed on the islet of Mactan on April 27 of that year, the Philippines were officially annexed to Spain in 1569, and till 1898 remained an integral part of the Spanish dominion, though some parts of the interior of Mindanao were never completely subjugated. Spanish rule was oppressive, taxation monstrous, and the tyranny of the religious orders unrestrained, and risings have repeatedly taken place—as in 1872. A rebellion in 1896 went on till the Spanish-American war began in 1898. The first serious blow in the war was given in Manila harbour (May 1), when the Spanish fleet was totally destroyed by an American squadron under Admiral Dewey. As a result of the war the Philippines were ceded to the United States on a payment of £4,000,000 (November 1898). The Philippine leader Aguinaldo, however, continued a desultory war with the United States forces till into the year 1901.
Besides Manila (q.v., the capital), other towns are Lipa, pop. 43,000; Banang, 35,000; Batangas, 35,000; Laoag, 30,000; San Miguel, 35,000; Cabaera, 30,000; Ilo-ilo, 24,000; and Cavite (q.v.). The Europeans in the islands number about 25,000, and the principal industries are in the hands of the Chinese, who number about 100,000. The exports amount to over £4,000,000, and consist chiefly of sugar (£1,600,000 in 1896), hemp (£1,500,000), tobacco-leaf (£500,000), cigars (£150,000), copra
(£375,000). The chief imports are rice, flour, coal, petroleum, &c., and amount to over £2,000,000. There is a considerable trade with the United Kingdom; in 1897 the imports from Britain were £400,000 in value, and the exports thither £1,278,830.
See J. E. Stevens, Yesterdays in the Philippines (1898); D. C. Worcester, The Philippine Islands and their People (1898); G. J. Younghusband, The Philippines and Round About (1899); Bowring, A Visit to the Philippines (1851); F. Jagor, Die Philippinen und ihre Bewohner, in Zeitschrift für Ethnol. (1870), and Reisen (Berlin, 1875); A. B. Meyer, Die Einwohnerzahl der Ph., Ueber die Negritos, und Album of Philippine Types (Dresden, 1878-85); Semper, Reisen (Wiesbaden, 1879-91); Blumentritt, in 'Petermann's Mitteilungen,' 1882, &c.; S. Kneeland, in Bull. American Geo. Soc. (1883); Plant, Journ. of Manchester Geo. Soc. (vol. ii. 1886); Rolfe, Journ. Linnean Soc. (vol. xxi. 1887); Montero y Vidal, El Archipiél. Filip. (1886), and Historia General de Filipinas (1887); and John Foreman, The Philippine Islands and Dependencies (1892).