Presbyterianism. The name Presbyterian is from the Greek presbyteros, 'elder.' The elders formed one division of the great council of the Jews, with the priests and scribes (Mark, xiv. 43); and every synagogue had its body of ruling elders (Luke, vii. 3, viii. 41). From these the name and some portion of the duties were transferred to the Christian church. We have no record of the first appointment of elders, but we find them as recognised rulers in the church of Jerusalem so early as the year 44 (Acts, xi. 30). The duties entrusted to them are these: (1) They had charge of the collections for the poor which were sent by the hands of Barnabas and Saul (Acts, xi. 30). (2) They are specially named as taking part in the council which was held at Jerusalem about the year 51 (Acts, xv. 2), and at the meeting of the church there when Paul reported his success among the Gentiles (Acts, xxi. 18). (3) They took part in the ordination of Timothy (1 Tim. iv. 14). (4) They were the pastors and bishops of the congregations. Thus the apostle Paul, addressing the elders of Ephesus, says, 'Take heed . . . to all the flock over which the Holy Ghost hath made you overseers (bishops) to feed the church of God' (Acts, xx. 28). And writing to Timothy, he says, 'Let the elders that rule well be counted worthy of double honour, especially they who labour in word and doctrine' (1 Tim. v. 17). Elders also are found in all the churches. We have seen them in the mother-church of Jerusalem; and when Paul and Barnabas went forth on their first missionary journey, about the year 46, they ordained elders in every church (Acts, xiv. 23). Accordingly we find them in Ephesus about the year 60 (Acts, xx. 17), and in the same city a few years later (1 Tim. v. 17, with chap. i. 3), and in Crete. Titus is commanded 'to ordain elders in every city' (Tit. i. 5). These are the scripture facts on which the system of Presbyterianism as a government by elders is based. It does not recognise the bishop as the superior of the presbyter, for they were originally two names of the same persons. Thus in Titus, i. 5, 7, the apostle writes, 'Ordain elders in every city . . . for a bishop must be blameless,' and in Acts xx. those who in verse 17 are termed elders in verse 28 are termed bishops. On the original identity of the bishop and presbyter Bishop Lightfoot says, 'It is a fact now generally recognised by theologians of all shades of opinion, that in the language of the New Testament the same officer in the church is called indifferently bishop (episcopos) and presbyter.' There are two instances in which the term 'bishop' occurs apart from his being described as 'elder,' just as there are many examples of the elder being mentioned without his being termed bishop (Phil. i. 1; 1 Tim. iii. 2). In the writings of Clement of Rome, about the end of the 1st century, there is the same identity between the elder and the bishop; but from this period onwards the distinction between the two begins to appear, though Jerome in the 4th century writes: 'Among the ancients bishop and presbyter are the same, for the one is a term of dignity, the other of age.' See the articles BISHOP, CHURCH HISTORY, ORDERS (HOLY).
It used to be claimed that Presbyterianism survived in the ancient Celtic Church; but the Celtic polity, though differing widely from diocesan Episcopacy, was very unlike Presbyterianism (see IRELAND, p. 210; SCOTLAND, p. 242; COLUMBA; CULDEES). The Waldenses (q.v.) were perhaps anti-episcopal. But Presbyterianism as we know it first asserted itself at or after the Reformation, when earnest attempts were everywhere made to restore to the church primitive doctrine and form. In Germany, France, and the Continent, from the relationship of church and state, its free development was prevented (see CONSISTORY). It was Calvin (q.v.) in Geneva who, though not its originator, gave Presbyterianism the form which, with modifications, it has ever since retained. It occupies a middle position between diocesan Episcopacy and Congregationalism, and may be styled ecclesiastical republicanism. The congregation elects its own minister and elders, and by deacons or managers regulates all its financial affairs. The session, consisting of the minister and elders, has the spiritual oversight of the congregation. The ministers, with one or more elders from each congregation, constitute the presbytery (formerly sometimes called classis) of a defined district, having a general superintendence of the congregations; to it appeal may be made from congregations or sessions. Some churches still retain as part of the regular organisation the synod, consisting of a number of presbyteries in a province, and a court of appeal from presbyteries; other churches dispense with this intermediate court. The General Assembly or General Synod is the highest court, and consists of all the presbyteries or their representatives.
Presbyterianism was for a short time dominant in England, but is now most fully represented in
Scotland, the north of Ireland, the British Colonies, and the United States. 'The alliance of the Reformed Churches holding the Presbyterian System' was founded at London in 1875, and has held 'Pan-Presbyterian' councils at Edinburgh (1877), Philadelphia (1880), Belfast (1884), London (1888), Toronto (1892), and Glasgow (1896), with Washington (1899) to follow. All churches are eligible 'having a creed in harmony with the consensus of the Reformed Confessions.' In 1896 there were 28 Presbyterian churches on the continent of Europe, 12 in the United Kingdom, 16 in North America, 7 in Australia, 2 in New Zealand, and 21 scattered over the rest of the world—86 in all, of which 67 were in the alliance. There were in all 29,364 Presbyterian church buildings, 25,477 ministers, and 4,627,140 communicants.
England.—The principles of the Puritans (q.v.) were essentially Presbyterian, although many of them were so much occupied with questions of doctrine and discipline, and with resistance to power exercised, as they believed, contrary to the word of God, that they paid little heed to the development of their principles in church government. Yet in 1572 a presbytery was formed at Wandsworth, in Surrey, by ministers of London and its neighbourhood, separating from the Church of England; and other presbyteries were soon formed, notwithstanding the extreme hostility of Queen Elizabeth. When the Westminster Assembly met in 1643 the Puritans of England were generally inclined to adopt Presbyterianism as their system of church government, although some still preferred a modified Episcopacy, and some had adopted the principles of Independency or Congregationalism. The Presbyterians were, however, the strongest party at the beginning of the Civil War, although the Independents gained the ascendancy afterwards. The establishment of Presbyterian church government in the Church of England was voted by parliament (the Long Parliament), 13th October 1647; but it was never really established. The influence of the Independents prevented it. London and its neighbourhood were, meanwhile, formed into twelve presbyteries, constituting the Provincial Synod of London, which continued to hold regular half-yearly meetings till 1655, the meetings of presbyteries being continued till a later date; but the whole Presbyterian system was overturned by Cromwell's Committee of Triers, appointed for the examining and approving of all persons elected or nominated to any ecclesiastical office. Cromwell's policy aimed at bringing all ecclesiastical matters under the immediate control of the civil power. The Restoration was followed by the fruitless Savoy Conference (q.v.), and soon after by the Act of Uniformity, which came into force on 24th August 1662; and on that day about 2000 ministers in England and Wales resigned their benefices, or submitted to be ejected from them, for conscience's sake. The first Nonconformists were mostly Presbyterians, but a small minority of Independents among them prevented the institution of a regular Presbyterian system, and the consequence was that the Nonconformists of England became in general practically Independent. Antinomianism and Arminianism soon appeared among them, and were followed by Socinianism or Unitarianism to such an extent that the name Presbyterian became synonymous in England with Socinian or Unitarian; old endowments, legacies of Presbyterians, being in many instances enjoyed by Unitarians. Meanwhile, there sprang up in England a few congregations connected with the Church of Scotland, and with what was formerly known as the 'Secession Church,' now the United Presbyterian Church. The number of such afterwards very much increased. At the time of the formation of the Free Church of Scotland (q.v.) the greater number of the English Presbyterian churches connected with the Church of Scotland sympathised with the cause of the Free Church, and took the name of the Presbyterian Church in England. In 1876 a union, which had been long desired, was consummated between the synod more intimately related to the Free Church of Scotland and the congregations belonging to the United Presbyterian Church. The name assumed by the united church is the Presbyterian Church of England. At the time of the union the Presbyterian Church in England had about 150 churches, and the United Presbyterian Church more than 100. At the same date the Church of Scotland in England had about twenty congregations.
Scotland.—The Presbyterian Churches of Scotland are separately treated in the articles SCOTLAND (CHURCH OF); FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND and UNITED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, now the UNITED FREE CHURCH (q.v.); and CAMERONIANS.
Ireland.—The Irish Presbyterian Church originated in the settlement of Ulster by Scottish colonists during the reign of James I. After various struggles a Presbyterian church was founded by the formation of a presbytery at Carrickfergus in 1642. The Presbyterian population of Ulster was greatly increased in number by immigration from Scotland about the middle of the 17th century; and, notwithstanding many difficulties, from the opposition of prelates and of the civil power, the church continued to increase. It is a curious fact that the Presbyterian ministers received a pension from government, under Charles II., in 1672, which Regium Donum (q.v.), however, was not regularly paid until the reign of William, when it was augmented, although only to the paltry amount in all of £1200 a year. It was afterwards repeatedly augmented, till it reached the amount of £70 for each minister. A seminary for the education of ministers was erected at Killaleagh; and in 1710 the synod of the Presbyterian Church resolved to institute the preaching of the gospel to the Irish in their own language. During this period of its history the Irish Presbyterian Church experienced the utmost opposition from the High Church party. Afterwards dissensions sprang up within it, and these with reference to the most important doctrines. A body opposed to the doctrine of the Westminster Confession of Faith was organised as the Presbytery of Antrim. But the doctrine of the Westminster Confession was more and more departed from in the Irish Presbyterian Church itself, which became to a large extent Arian or Unitarian. In 1830 a separation took place from the Arians, who then formed the Remonstrant Presbytery of Ulster. In 1840 a union took place of the Irish Presbyterian Church forming the Synod of Ulster and the Secession Church in Ireland, an offshoot of the Scottish Secession Church, which then reckoned 141 congregations in the north of Ireland. The Irish Presbyterian Church, adhering to the Westminster Confession, in 1889 had 620 ministers, with 102,057 communicants (Presbyterian pop. at 1891 census, 446,687), and it has not only displayed much zeal for the advancement of Protestantism in Ireland, but also of Christianity in other parts of the world, and supports a very successful mission in Gujarat and Manchuria. The act disestablishing the Irish Church in 1869 provided also for the discontinuance of the Regium Donum to the Presbyterians, with reservation of annuities for life to ministers already entitled to it; and further gave power for commutation of annuities for a capital sum, of which advantage has been taken to a very large extent, so that a fund has been formed for paying annuities and leaving a large surplus as the nucleus of a Sustentation Fund for the ministers in time to come. There are two colleges—one purely theological, at Belfast, with seven professors; the other, at Londonderry, has eight professors and a complete curriculum. The colleges were empowered in 1881 jointly to grant degrees in theology.
United States.—The first Presbyterians in America were emigrants from Scotland and Ireland. The first Presbyterian congregations in America were organised in Maryland before the close of the 17th century—the oldest that of Rehoboth, dating about 1690—and the first presbytery in Philadelphia in 1705. A synod, consisting of four presbyteries, was constituted in 1716. Dissensions ensued; but in 1758 the American Presbyterian churches were united in one; and in 1788 a General Assembly was instituted, the whole number of congregations being then 419, and of ministers 188. The increase of the church was rapid, and in 1834 it contained 22 synods, 111 presbyteries, and about 1900 ministers. In 1801 a scheme of union was adopted between Presbyterians and Congregationalists, under which hundreds of congregations were formed in the state of New York and elsewhere. About the beginning of the 19th century the Cumberland Presbyterians (q.v.) separated from the main body; and in 1838 the American Presbyterian Church was divided into two great sections, commonly known as Old School and New School Presbyterians, the former holding high Calvinistic doctrines, the latter a somewhat modified Calvinism. Both of these churches are extended over the whole of the United States, and both of them have missions in different parts of the heathen world, their collections for missions forming a large part of the contributions for that object from the United States of America. For some years they showed symptoms of a sincere desire to reunite; and this object they accomplished in 1869, notwithstanding the dissensions and new divisions caused by the struggles between the Northern and Southern States on the question of slavery. At the time of this union the Old School Presbyterians counted 2381 ministers, 2740 churches, and 258,903 communicants; while the New School numbered 1848 ministers, 1631 churches, and 170,562 communicants. Each possessed at the same time five theological seminaries. A revision of the Confession has been carried out since 1890. There are several sections of the Presbyterian Church in the United States, each having its own theological seminaries and colleges, such as the Presbyterian Churches Northern and Southern, the Cumberland, the Reformed, the United Presbyterian, the Reformed Dutch and German, &c. In 1890 the number of ministers was over 11,000, and of communicants, 1,587,790.
British Colonies.—By the middle of the 18th century Presbyterian ministers were labouring in Nova Scotia and Quebec, the various divisions of the home churches being represented at an early stage; but most of the early ministers came from the Secession Church. A union between the sections representing the Free and United Presbyterian Churches took place in 1861. The Presbyterian Church in Canada is strong and prosperous, with six theological colleges. In 1890 there were above 800 ministers, and about 140,000 communicants. In the Australasia colonies Presbyterianism is also vigorous; see articles on the several colonies. In the Cape Colony and minor colonies Presbyterianism is also represented.
On Presbyterianism, as against Episcopacy and Independence, see, in the 17th century, works by Gillespie, Rutherford, Baillie, 'Smectymnuus,' Byfield, Baxter, Clarkson; in the 18th, Welles, Hall, John Brown, Whytock; later, Barnes, Scriptural Argument for Episcopacy Examined (1835), and The Apostolic Church (1843);
The Plea of Presbytery (1840); Miller, Manual of Presbytery (1842); Smyth, Presbytery the Scriptural Polity (1843); King, Church Government (1854); Macpherson, Presbyterianism (1883); Bannerman, Worship of the Presbyterian Church (1884); Constitution and Law of the Church of Scotland (1884); Witherow, Form of the Christian Temple (1889); Killen, The Framework of the Church (1890); works on the Westminster Assembly and its Confession of Faith by Hetherington (new ed. 1891), Hodge (1869), Macpherson (1881), Mitchell (1867, 1883, 1886). See also the articles in this work on CALVIN, KNOX, ASSEMBLY (GENERAL), ELDER, CHURCH HISTORY, REFORMATION, CONFESSIONS, WESTMINSTER ASSEMBLY. For Presbyterian missions, see MISSIONS. For Presbyterianism in England, see Madrie, Annals of English Presbytery (1872); Drysdale's History of the Presbyterians in England (1889); Minutes of the Manchester Presbyterian Classis (Chetham Society, part i.-iii. 1890-91). For Ireland, see IRELAND; also Reid, History of the Presbyterian Church in Ireland (1867); Irwin, Irish Presbyterianism (1890). For America, see Webster, History of the Presbyterian Churches in America (1857); Gillett, History of the Presbyterian Church in the United States (1864); American Presbyterianism (1885).