Prout, SAMUEL, painter in water-colours, was born at Plymouth, 17th September 1783. He studied from nature, and sketched with Haydon through Devon and Cornwall, his drawings in the latter county being made for Britton's Beauties of England and Wales. In 1805 he removed to London, in 1815 was elected to the Water-colour Society, and in 1818 went to Rouen by Havre. The picturesque street-architecture and fine Gothic remains there made so strong an impression on his mind that afterwards his principal works were those in which architecture had a prominent place; and from time to time, in his after-career, he made excursions, ransacking every corner of France, Germany, the Netherlands, and Italy for picturesque architectural remains. Prout's name should be dear to all artists and amateurs, for there are few who have not been incited or instructed by his numerous elementary drawing-books, in the slightest of which talent and feeling for art are conspicuous. His water-colour drawings are characterised by decision in handling, great breadth, and clear and pleasing colouring. He died February 9, 1852.
See Ruskin's Memoir of Prout in Art Journal (1852); and his Notes on the Loan Collection of Drawings by Prout and Wm. Hunt (1879-80).
Provençal Language and Literature.
The Provençal language is one of the six principal branches of Latin speech, usually classified by philologists under the title Romance languages. The name Provençal, which appears to be derived from the Provincia Romana of Cæsar, was not used in the earlier middle ages except in the restricted sense of the language or dialect of Provence proper. The troubadours themselves used the term lengua romana (or lo romans). The term langue d'oc was also known in the middle ages, but was afterwards transferred to designate a province of France. The Provençal and other Neo-Latin idioms existed as dialects of the Latin previous to the Germanic invasions, having replaced the ancient languages of Gaul. Although the Provençal and the northern French had originally sprung from the same stock, they had gradually grown distinct from one another, until at the time of the troubadours they differed almost as widely as French and Italian. The Provençal language at the time of the troubadours extended far beyond the boundaries of Provence proper. It extended over the area from the Alps to the Pyrenees and the Mediterranean to the Loire. Beyond France it was known in the east of Spain—in Catalonia and Aragon, and in the Balearic Isles—also in Savoy, Piedmont, and part of Switzerland.
The pure Provençal idiom, in which the poets of the 12th century sang, was used by the higher classes over the whole of the district referred to, but the bulk of the people knew only their own dialects—viz. the Provençal (proper), Piedmontese, Gascon, and Catalan, all of which differed but slightly from one another. At the end of the 13th century, consequent upon the establishment of the French domination in the south and the introduction of the northern French language, the literary Provençal began rapidly to disappear, while the vulgar dialects still remained; and it was in them that the compositions of the later middle ages were written. The Provençal language was more highly inflected than any of the other Neo-Latin languages, and was the earliest of these to be fixed grammatically. It was highly adapted for lyric poetry, owing to its melodiousness and its rhyming facilities. The grammarian Vidal referring to it says: 'La parladura francesca val mais et es plus avineus a far romanç et pasturellas, mas cella de Lemosin val mais per far vers et cansons et sirventes' (The
French speech is better and more suited for making epics and pastourelles, whilst that of Lemosin [i.e. the Provençal] is better for making love-songs and satires). In the modern Provençal dialects there is to be noted chiefly a greater simplicity of inflections and grammatical forms and a large admixture of French words.
The first employment of the Provençal language in writing dates back to about the 9th century. The few specimens that survive are mostly writings in Latin, but mixed more or less with Provençal words and phrases. It is to the priests and monks that are most probably due the earliest attempts at composition in the Provençal language. In order to arouse the religious sympathies of the people they composed or translated from the Latin into the vulgar idiom pious tales, allegories, legends of saints, &c. There were also introduced into the liturgy, along with the prayers and hymns in pure Latin, others in the popular dialect. In 813 at the councils of Arles, Mainz, and Tours preaching in the popular language was recommended to the clergy. Towards the close of the 11th century a revival took place in Provençal poetry consequent upon the religious wars of the Crusades and the introduction of the institution of chivalry. The influence of the Moors of Spain undoubtedly, too, had its effect in the development of Provençal poetry and culture. The poetry of mediæval Provence has much in common with that of the Moors.
Although it was in the north of France that epic poetry in the middle ages especially flourished, still in the south it was by no means so neglected as many have supposed. Among the earliest compositions in the Provençal language were undoubtedly epic romances, treating either of historical subjects, such as the struggles against the Franks or the wars with the Moors of Spain, or else of the semi-mythical deeds of Charlemagne and King Arthur which formed the basis of the Carolingian and Arthurian (or Round-Table) legends. Of these old popular epics which were sung and so handed down from generation to generation we possess but few traces. From the middle of the 12th century epic poetry may be divided into popular and artistic. Of the first class but few specimens remain, but of the artistic epic they are more numerous, probably owing to the fact that, being recited and not sung, it was more necessary to commit them to writing.
The Provençals did not cultivate the drama like the French; in fact the only productions that might come under this head are pieces on pious subjects in dramatised form, such as the Mystery of the Passion, the Marriage of the Virgin, &c. Provençal literature was essentially poetic, and its prose works are of little importance. They were in the early period mostly translations from the Latin, sermons and chronicles—also the biographies of the principal troubadours. Later, in the 14th and 15th centuries, prose works became more numerous, and included scientific, juridical, philological, and other works. The lyric poetry is by far the best-known branch of Provençal literature. It was in lyric verse that the Provençal poets gave expression to the sentiments of chivalry and love—of that adoration and devotion to women which had become with them a sort of worship.
The word troubadour (in Provençal trobaire, trobador) is derived from the verb trobar (Fr. trouver, 'to find, invent, compose'; from Lat. turbare, 'to move,' meaning latterly 'to seek,' and also 'to find'). This verb was used only with reference to the composition of lyric poetry. Hence, strictly speaking, a troubadour means a poet of the lyric form. Epic poets were styled noellaires (Fr. novellistes, 'romancers'). The troubadours were of two classes—viz. professional and amateur. Amongst the latter were many nobles and even kings, as, for instance, Richard Cœur-de-Lion, Alfonso II. of Aragon, the Counts of Poitou, Provence, and Toulouse; of the professional troubadours also many were of high birth. Generally speaking, the latter were recruited from all ranks of society (merchants, soldiers, monks, lawyers, &c.), and they were of various grades. The majority of the troubadours led a wandering life, frequently travelling beyond the limits of their own country—more especially into Spain, visiting Catalonia and Aragon, and even Castile. Beyond the Alps they visited Piedmont, Lombardy, and Tuscany, where many of them settled. Others—mostly those who were tired of wandering—attached themselves to the households of the great feudal lords, wherein they played an important part. There were no fixed schools of poetry for learning the troubadour's art. They acquired it either by attaching themselves as pupils to some celebrated troubadour, or by visiting the great châteaux which the more distinguished poets were accustomed to frequent. The convent, too, was a great school of song; the monks had both the means and leisure to cultivate the taste for poetic composition, and there were many monks amongst the troubadours. At a later period professors of poetry established themselves in the chief towns of Provence; Peire Cardinal settled as such at Tarascon in the 13th century. The first of the troubadours of whom we know was Guillem IX., Count of Poitiers, a powerful noble of the south of France. He flourished towards the end of the 11th century. To the first half of the 12th century belong Cercamon (or Cherchemonde); Marcabrun, who was originally attached to the service of Cercamon in his wanderings; Peire d'Alvern, a troubadour of great merit; and Bernart de Ventadorn, who was famed for the grace and sweetness of his poetry. The second half of the 12th and first half of the 13th centuries was the most brilliant period of Provençal poetry. Of the many poets who flourished during this period the following are the most distinguished: Gaucelm Faidit; Gui d'Uisel; Peirols; Arnaut de Marnell, the author of many exquisite love-songs; the talented Folquet, Bishop of Marseilles; Peire Vidal of Toulouse, a versatile and most eccentric poet; Arnaut Daniel, the chief of the artificial school; Giraut de Bornel, considered by the Provençals themselves to be the finest of all their poets (though Dante and Petrarch both regard Arnaut Daniel as superior to him); Raimbaut de Vaquieras; Guillem de Cabestanh, a most melodious singer; the Monk of Montaudon, a powerful and unsparing satirist; Raimon de Miravals; Ue de Saint Ciri; Guillem Adhemar; Bertrand de Born, the author of many warlike sirventes; Guillem Figueira; and Peire Cardinal, the great writer of moral and religious satire. The latter half of the 13th century shows the poetry of the troubadours in its decline, and few of the poets of this period deserve to be classed with those of the previous one. Towards the close of the century lived Guiraut Riquier, a poet of great renown, who has been termed the 'last of the troubadours.' He specially cultivated the popular forms of lyric poetry, particularly the pastoreta. Among the long list of troubadours (about 400 in all) there are only about a dozen women-singers of whom we know. Their works, so far as one can judge from the scanty fragments that remain, are much inferior in merit to those of the troubadours. The most distinguished among them was the Countess Beatrix de Dia, who has been termed the Sappho of Provence.
The compositions of the troubadours were intended to be sung to the accompaniment of some musical instrument. In most cases the poets themselves composed the melodies for their pieces. The text was called motz, the melody son. There is no doubt that many of the troubadours sang and accompanied their own compositions. But those who were unable to do so were obliged to have recourse to professional musicians to sing and play for them. These professional musicians they found among the joglars (Fr. jongleurs) or wandering minstrels. The origin of the joglars dates back to the time of the Romans; they were the descendants of the joculatores, who took part in the ancient circus-games. The joglars of the middle ages were a sort of travelling showmen, who gave performances at village feasts, and were often accompanied by trained dogs and monkeys. There were some of them, however, whose profession was rather more artistic than mere buffoonery or jugglery; they became the singers and companions of the troubadours. Some were in the service of the troubadours, and travelled about with them; others went about independently, singing the pieces they had either bought or had presented to them by the troubadours. The latter, as a class, held themselves much above the joglars, though it sometimes happened that joglars rose to the ranks of the troubadours.
It was only from the 12th century that a poetic system began to be fixed, and the different branches of lyric verse received distinctive titles. Previous to that period every lyric poem was termed vers, from the Latin versus, 'a hymn,' because the early lyric compositions were modelled on the ecclesiastical verses, whatever their subject might be. Epic compositions were termed prosa. The two principal branches of lyric poetry were the canso or love-song and the sirventes or satire. The canso was the outward expression of love and its various phases. In order to write the love-song (to trobar) it was essential, according to the ideas of Provençals, that the poet should be in love himself, that he should be inspired by the passion before he could give expression to it. Their idea of love, it may be remarked, was not wholly that of romantic adoration; hence the many licentious pieces among the lyrics of the troubadours. The canso generally closed with a few lines in which the poet apostrophised himself or his song, and commissioned it to explain his sentiments to his lady-love. This was termed the tornada. The term sirventes or sirventesc was used to comprise not only satirical poems, but generally every class of lyric composition that did not treat of love. These were divided into various classes—personal, social, political, moral, and religious—the last named including the songs of the Crusades. In their social satires the troubadours attacked with energy the vices and oppression of the nobles. Attacks, too, on the clergy were frequent, more especially at the time of the Albigenses war, when the poets sided (with one or two exceptions) with the heretics against the Church of Rome. In doing so they do not appear to have been influenced so much by questions of doctrine as by hostility to the northern French intruders, and we do not find any of them putting forward heretical opinions in their works, with the single exception of one piece by Peire Cardinal.
The crusades against the Saracens formed a constant theme enabling the troubadours to celebrate in song their love of daring and glory. Most of the crusade-songs we possess relate to the third crusade, which took place during the most flourishing period of Provençal poetry. In these songs they exhorted their countrymen to rise and take up arms against the infidels. War in general—not merely religious—was a favourite sub- ject with the troubadours. The most famous writer of warlike sirventes was Bertrand de Born (q.v.), a typical mediæval baron.
The tenso was a sort of dispute or contention in verse in the form of a dialogue between two troubadours, generally upon some question relating to love or chivalry. Tensos actually did take place among the troubadours, although in many of their poems the antagonists would appear to be merely fictitious persons. This form of verse was of eastern origin, and was common among the Arabs and Persians.
Besides the canso, sirventes, and tenso, there existed also simpler, more popular forms of lyric verse. Originally the balada was a poem intended to be sung in dancing. It consisted generally of three strophes, and was remarkable for its graceful dance-like rhythm. The pastorela (pastoreta), or shepherd's song, was always a favourite form of verse with the Provençal poets. The alba (or dawn-song) and the serena (or even-song) were also cultivated by the Provençals. The latter is to be distinguished from the serenade, and was a poem depicting the longing of the poet for the approach of the night and the meeting with his beloved. Novas—tales in verse (compare the north French Fabliaux, q.v.)—were few and unimportant among the Provençals compared with those of the French.
The Provençal system of versification was most highly elaborated, the poets observing the most intricate metrical rules in their compositions. An instance of such elaborate verse is the sestina, which was invented by Arnaut Daniel and imitated by Dante, Petrarch, and other poets. The sestina was a species of verse consisting of six stanzas, each of six lines, in which the rhyming words of the first stanza were carried on through all the others in an inverted order. The opposite of the sestina was the descort, which was subject to no definite rules as regards either metre, rhyme, or length of stanzas. Some poets even purposely sought after discordance. A distinguished troubadour, Raimbaut of Vaqueras (1180-1207), in one of his pieces uses five different languages (viz. Provençal, Tuscan, French, Gascon, and Catalan) in five succeeding verses, the sixth being a mixture of all five. The sonnet is frequently supposed to have been of Provençal origin. But the only two examples we know of in that language were by an Italian who composed in Provençal, Dante da Majano. The probability is that it was peculiar to the Italians, though doubtless it was the outcome of the influence of Provençal versification. Sonet in Provençal is simply identical with son, meaning melody.
The two distinguishing characteristics of Provençal versification are the rhyme and the syllabic accent. Some have supposed that in their predilection for rhyme they were influenced by the Moors, but it is more than likely it was natural to the Provençals. The great number of final syllables of the same sound existing in the declensions and conjugations of their language offered great ease of rhyming, and doubtless this had much to do with the formation of their poetry. Owing to their excessive regard for form, there is noticeable in the lyrics of the troubadours a certain sameness or want of variety of sentiment, and a tendency to be artificial rather than natural. Yet the high merit of their poetry must be acknowledged when we consider how rough were the times in which they lived, and how few literary models they had to guide them. The culture of the Greeks and Romans had long been extinct, and of classical literature they knew nothing, whilst at the time of the highest point of their development the poetry of northern France, of
England, of Germany, and of Italy was yet in its infancy.
Rapid as had been the rise of Provençal poetry, as rapid was its decline. What more than anything else was the cause of this decline was the war against the Albigenses (q.v.) in the 13th century, which proved disastrous to the nobles of the south of France. Their lands were laid waste, their castles destroyed. Besides this, with the establishment of the French domination in the south the French language began to be generally used among the upper classes; thus there was no longer any encouragement for the troubadours. Their poetry ceased to be cultivated as formerly. The clergy, too, in their fanatic endeavours to extinguish heresy, destroyed large numbers of Provençal works, and in a bull Pope Innocent IV. styles the Provençal a heretical language, and forbade the use of it to the clergy. With the 13th century the real literary life of the Provençals had disappeared. The two following centuries can only be regarded as an after-period in which the traditions of the troubadours still lingered on. In the first half of the 14th century an effort was made to revive the old poetry. Seven citizens of Toulouse, under the title La sobregaya companhia dels set trobadors de Tolosa, established in that city a society of song. Under the auspices of this society were organised Jeux Floraux, or poetic contests, at which prizes were given. The activity of the society was not confined to Toulouse; branch societies were formed throughout the south of France, and even in Catalonia and Aragon; but, though it existed for several centuries, this society could never effect what it aimed at—viz. the restoration of the brilliant period of Provençal song. In the 14th and 15th centuries prose works became more numerous. Such were learned treatises— theological, medical, legal, and philological—local chronicles, and pious tales or legends.
During the following three centuries there are almost no Provençal works worthy of notice. In the 19th century, however, a new poetic activity began to manifest itself, commencing with the poet Jacquot Jansemin, or Jasmin (q.v.), and after him Romanille, the founder of the Society of the Felibres (which has in view the preservation of the Provençal language and customs), Mistral (q.v.), a poet of great genius, Aubanel, and others. Poetic festivals, like the Jeux Floraux, have also been introduced to aid the movement.
On the subject of the Provençal Language see Diez, Grammatik der Romanischen Sprachen (1836–38; 5th ed. 1882); Raynouard, Lexique Roman (1838–44), and his Grammaire comparée des Langues de l'Europe Latine (1821); Mahn, Grammatik u. Wörterbuch der Altprovenzalischen Sprache (1885 et seq.); D. B. Kitchin, An Introduction to the Study of Provençal (1887). On the literature see Diez, Die Poesie der Troubadours (2d ed. 1883), and Altromanische Sprachdenkmäler (1846); Raynouard, Choix de Poesies originales des Troubadours (1816–21); Fauriel, Histoire de la Littérature Provençale (1846); Bartsch, Grundriss zur Geschichte der Provenzalischen Literatur (1872), and Chrestomathie Provençale (4th ed. 1880); Hueffer, The Troubadours, a History of Provençal Life and Literature (Lond. 1878); Mahn, Die Biographien der Troubadours (2d ed. 1878); Gatien-Arnoul, Monuments de la Littérature Romaine depuis le 14me Siècle; Milá y Fontanals, Los Troubadores en España (Barcelona, 1861); Paul Meyer, Les derniers Troubadours de la Provence; and Böhm, Die Provenzalische Poesie der Gegenwart (1877).