Sanskrit (samskrita, 'perfected,' 'polished'—viz. sam, together or completely, = ἄμα, Eng. 'same,' and krita, 'made,' probably connected with Lat. creo) is the name of the ancient literary language of India. It forms the easternmost branch of the great Indo-Germanic (Indo-European, Aryan) stock of languages, and the one which, thanks to its early literary cultivation (from c. 1500 B.C.) and grammatical fixation, and its consequent transparency of structure and fullness of form, approaches nearest to the parent language. In some respects, however (notably in the retention of a single a-vowel in place of the differentiation into a, e, o, prevailing in the European languages—e.g. Sansk. bharantam = φέροντα), the primitive appearance of the Sanskrit, as of the closely allied Iranian or Persian branch, is now generally ascribed to a special Indo-Iranian development, or to a later return to a phonetic phase already outgrown by the parent language at the time of the separation. Whilst it is admitted on all hands that the Aryan dialect out of which the literary language of India has developed cannot have been indigenous to the peninsula, but must have been introduced from the north-east, there is still considerable difference of opinion as to the original home of the primitive Aryan community—whether it is to be sought for in Asia, as used to be universally believed till recent years, or whether, as many scholars are now inclined to think, it was from some part of Europe that the Asiatic Aryans—the Armenians and Indo-Persians—originally came. On entering India, the Aryan tribes found the country occupied by people of different races; but, favoured by physical and intellectual superiority, they gradually succeeded in extending their sway, as well as their language and their social and religious institutions, over the whole of Northern India. Owing, however, to various causes, such as new political formations or racial or tribal differences in the population absorbed by the ruling race, local dialects gradually sprang up within this area, which eventually developed into the modern vernaculars of Northern and Western India. See INDIA, Vol. VI. pp. 101-2.
Although the term Sanskrit, as the 'perfected' language, properly speaking only belongs to the grammatically fixed form of the language which was employed from about the 4th or 5th century B.C., and which came more and more to assume the character of a mere literary and learned idiom, it is usual to extend the term so as to include an earlier form of the same language used in the Vedic writings, and hence often called Vedic Sanskrit. The two phases of the language show considerable differences, as regards both vocabulary and grammar. The vocabulary of the older language includes numerous words which are no longer used in classical Sanskrit, and the very meaning of which had often become unknown; whilst, on the other hand, many of the commonest words of the later language are not found in the Vedic writings. As regards the inflectional system, the original wealth of grammatical forms has become considerably reduced in the later phase of the language. Thus, whilst the classical Sanskrit has but a single infinitive in tum—being the accusative case of a verbal abstract noun in tu, and corresponding to the Latin first supine (e.g. Sansk. dātum, yoktum = Lat. dātum, junctum)—the Vedic Sanskrit also makes use for the same purpose of different case-forms of quite a number of verbal nouns, several of which occur again with a similar function in one or other of the allied languages—e.g. Sansk. vidmane = ἰδμεναι; Sansk. dāvane = δοῦναι, δοῦναι; Sansk. jīvase = Lat. vivere; Sansk. bharadhyai = φέρεσθαι. Similarly the subjunctive mood, which formed a regular feature of the Indo-
Germanic and Vedic verb-systems, has almost entirely disappeared from the classical Sanskrit; and alternative declensional and conjugational forms have usually been reduced to a uniform level. Indeed, levelling processes of this kind are seen to have been at work from the earliest times. Thus, a comparison of the language of the older portions of the Rigveda with that of the later hymns, and the closely allied Atharvaveda, shows how, both in declension and conjugation, vowel-stems gradually supersede the original radical and consonantal stems, which less readily adapt themselves to case and personal affixes, and hence are apt to produce anomalies and irregularities. Such modifications become still more marked in the later Vedic prose-writings, the Brāhmanas and Sūtras, which may be considered an intermediate link between the two periods of the language. Though the process of change was at length arrested by rigid grammatical rules, to which every cultivated writer had to conform, it found all the more scope in the popular dialects, which soon lost touch of the literary language and became more and more removed from it.
Literature.—In accordance with the general development of the language, the history of the ancient literature of India may conveniently be divided into two chief periods, the Vedic Literature and the (Classical) Sanskrit Literature. It must be understood, however, that the two periods overlap each other to some extent, inasmuch as certain classes of works, on account of their subject-matter as well as the archaic character of their language, have to be grouped along with the Vedic literature, though they cannot have originated, in their present form, till after the language had become settled. The Vedic Literature forms the subject of a separate article. See VEDA.
Classical Sanskrit Literature.—The dates of many important Sanskrit works being still very uncertain, it is not yet possible satisfactorily to subdivide this period chronologically; and the usual practice of treating it under the different departments of literature is therefore adhered to.
A. Poetic Literature.—(1) Epic Poetry.—The Hindus possess two great national epics, the Mahābhārata (q.v.) and the Rāmāyaṇa (q.v.). Along with these may be classed the Purāṇas (q.v.), which, although in their present form they were doubtless composed or recast for sectarian purposes several centuries after Christ, seem to contain a considerable amount of genuine old legendary matter akin to large portions of the Mahābhārata. Though the final redaction of the two epics can scarcely be assigned to an earlier period than about the beginning of our era, it can hardly be doubted that the vast mass of legendary lore and complete epic lays of which the Mahābhārata is composed, at all events, must have required centuries to grow and assume its present shape. At a subsequent period, from about the 5th or 6th century A.D. onwards, there arose a second crop of epic poems of an entirely different character. Whilst the old poems are composed in easy, natural language, such as might well have formed the living though cultured language of the people, these later works are evidently the artificial product of an age when the literary language had long lost touch of the popular mind. Their subject-matter, such as there is, is entirely derived from the old legends; but the form in which it is here presented has nothing of the old popular ring about it—elaborate metres, long and complicated compounds, and laboured figures of speech through which the epic narrative hardly progresses at all being the characteristic features of most of these productions, built up in accordance with a narrow code of rhetoric. They are nevertheless replete with poetic thoughts and genuine artistic feeling, which only require a less artificial form of presentment to please even the western taste. Of such poems (kāvya) there existed a considerable number; but the native taste has singled out six of them as mahākāvyas or great poems—viz. two by Kālidāsa (q.v.), by far the greatest poet of this period, the Rāghavāṇśa and the Kumārasambhava; further the Kirātārjunīya by Bhāravi (probably a contemporary of Kālidāsa, ? c. 500–550 A.D.); the S'is'upālabadha by Māgha, hence also called Māghakāvya; the Rāvaṇabadha or Bhaṭṭikāvya, composed by Bhaṭṭi with the view of illustrating the less common grammatical forms of speech; and the Naishadhiya of Śrī Haṇsa (12th century).
(2) Lyric, Descriptive, and Didactic Poetry.—In this class of poetic production the palm is usually assigned to two poems by Kālidāsa—viz. the Meghadūta, or cloud-messenger, where an exiled demigod sends a message of love to his wife by a cloud, to which he describes, in glowing verse-pictures, the places and scenes it will have to traverse; and the Ritusamphāra, a description of the seasons. Of high poetic merit, though of a very sensuous character, is also the melodrama Gitagovinda (12th century) of Jayadeva (q.v.), which describes the love-making of the god Krishna among the milkmaids, his separation from, and ultimate reconciliation with, his wife Rādhā; and which, like the biblical Song of Songs, is considered capable of being explained in a mystic-allegorical sense. Moreover, scattered over dramas and manuals of rhetoric, or collected in poetic anthologies, there are extant thousands of single stanzas, composed with the view of depicting some striking local scene or emotional sensation. They may be likened to our sonnets, being like them artificial productions, though often composed with much skill and neatness, and inspired by genuine poetic sentiment. Didactic poetry, in Indian literature, takes chiefly the form of moral maxims, or sententious truths, expressed in single couplets or stanzas. There are a number of collections of such stanzas, intended to serve as manuals of ethical and social science, the best known of which are the Rājāṇitisamucchaya, or 'collection on the conduct of kings,' ascribed to Chānakya; the Kāmaṇḍakīya-Nītisāra, by Kāmaṇḍaki; and the Nītisāra, or century (of stanzas) on ethic science, by Bhartṛhari, who also wrote two centuries of erotic and devotional verses. To render moral instruction more attractive to the youthful mind, sententious verses of this kind were also combined with humorous stories and fables; the most famous reading-books of this class being the well-known Panchatantra (q.v.), or 'five books,' and the popular recast of it called Hitopadeśa (q.v.), or 'good counsel;' further, the Vetālapāṇchaviṁśati, or twenty-five (tales) of the goblin; the Simhāsanaḍvātriṁśikā, or thirty-two (stories) of the throne; and the S'ukasaptati, or seventy (tales) of the parrot. Two highly popular collections of versified fairy-tales are Kṣemendra's Vṛīhatkathā, or great story (c. 1030 A.D.), and Somadeva's Kathāsaritsāgara (trans. by C. H. Tawney), or 'ocean of rivers of story' (c. 1120). The Sanskrit novellistic prose literature, on the other hand, is very scanty, and characterised by a stilted, highly involved style, the few best-known works of this class being Dandin's Dasākumāracharita (6th century), or adventures of the ten princes (trans. by P. W. Jacob); Subandhu's Vāsavadattū; and Bāna's Kādambarī (c. 620 A.D.).
(3) Drama.—Though dramatic performances of some kind seem to go back to pretty early times, none of the existing plays are probably older than the 5th century of our era. The language is usually of a mixed nature, higher male characters speaking in Sanskrit, whilst women and lower male characters use Prâkrits, or popular dialects. Plays invariably begin with a benediction and a prelude in the form of a dialogue between the stage-manager and one of the actors, containing some allusion to the author, and leading over to the opening scene. Two standing and interesting characters of the Indian stage are the Vita, or dissolute associate of the hero, somewhat resembling the parasite of the Greek comedy, and the Vidûshaka, his humorous companion, or Graciosos. The extant plays number about fifty. Their plots are usually based on the epic legends. The greatest of Indian playwrights is Kâlidâsa (q.v.; c. 500 A.D.), the author of the Sakuntalâ, the Vikramorvasî, and Mâlavikâgnimitra. Possibly somewhat older than these, and certainly highly interesting as a vivid picture of the social life of the time, is the Mrichchhakatîkâ, or toy-cart, ascribed to a king Sûdraka. Next to Kâlidâsa, in the estimation of native scholars, ranks Bhavabhûtî (q.v.; c. 700), likewise the author of three plays—viz. the heroic dramas Mahâvîracharita and Uttararâmacharita, and the domestic drama Mâlâtîmâdhava. He is, however, far less of an artist than his great rival, and his language is much more artificial. Besides these may be mentioned S'ri Harshadeva, king of Kanauj (c. 625), the reputed author (or patron) of the Ratnâvalî, Nâgânanda, and Priyadars'ikâ; Bhaţta Nârâyaṇa, author of the Veñisamphâra; and Krishnamis'ra (12th century), who wrote the Prabodhachandrodaya, or 'moonrise of Intelligence,' a rather tedious allegorical play, the characters of which consist entirely of abstract ideas—virtues and vices—ranged in two contending armies (see H. H. Wilson, Theatre of the Hindus).
B. Scientific Literature.—The first beginnings of nearly all the branches of scientific inquiry cultivated in mediæval India may be traced back to the later Vedic times, being the natural outgrowth of the Vedic religion and of the study of the sacred writings. This fact indeed receives a direct recognition in the traditional classification itself, inasmuch as it includes among the Vedic literature, under the title of Vedāṅga, or members of the Veda, the original or fundamental treatises of six sciences—viz. phonetics (s'ikshâ), prosody (chhandas), grammar (vyâkarana), etymology (nirukta), astronomy (jyotiṣa), and ceremonial law (kalpa). Though some of these treatises, in their present form at all events, cannot justly lay claim to so high an antiquity, it is not improbable that they are based on older treatises on their respective subjects.
(1) Law (dharma).—The earliest attempts at an orderly statement of social and civil usages are to be found in the Dharmasûtras, or rules of law, which form part of some of the Kalpasûtras, or ceremonial rules (see VEDA), in close connection with the Grihyasûtras, or rules of domestic rites, out of which they may indeed have originally grown. The few still extant sets of Dharmasûtras—viz. those of Baudhâyaṇa, Apastamba, Gautama, and Vâsisitha (all trans. by G. Bühler)—though mainly composed in aphorisms, are interspersed with couplets or stanzas, giving the substance of several rules; and it is in these detached verses that many scholars would trace the first tendency toward the composition of the versified codes of law, the Dharmasâstras or Smritis, which, somewhere about the beginning of our era, came to supplant the Sûtra-codes, and remained for centuries the standard authorities on matters of law. Whilst some few of these new codes, like their prose prototypes, appear to have been directly connected with certain Vedic schools, such does not seem to have been the case as regards the vast majority of them, which were called by their authors, more or less fancifully, either after some old semi-mythic teacher or sage, such as Atri, Hârita, S'âtâpata, or even after some god, such as Vishnu, Brihaspati, Yama. Hindu law usually recognises three distinct divisions—viz. âchâra, or established usage; vyavahâra, or civil procedure; and prâyas'chittâ, or penance. The three most important Smritis are those of Manu (q.v.), Yâjnavalkya, and Parâs'ara. This last code lacks, however, the section on civil law, which was only supplied some 500 years ago by the famous exegete Mâdhava, who composed a digest of law, based on Parâs'ara, with a special chapter on Vyavahâra. The new school of practical jurisprudence to which this work belongs was ushered in by Vijñânes'vara's Mitâksharâ (11th century), which, though primarily a commentary on Yâjnavalkya, constantly quotes other authorities, and thus serves the purposes of a digest of law, and remains to this day one of the standard works on Hindu law. Amongst other famous digests may be mentioned Devannabhaţta's Smritichandrikâ (13th century), highly esteemed in Southern India; Jîmûtavâhana's Dâyabhâga, the chief authority on inheritance in the Bengal school; the Vîramitrodaya, by Mitramis'ra (c. 1625); and the Vyavahâramayûkha, being the civil law section of a general digest by Bhaţta Nilakantha (c. 1640).
(2) Philosophy.—While the main body of the Vedic hymns are the immediate outgrowth of a worship of the elemental forces of nature, not a few of the hymns, especially the later ones, evidence a strong tendency towards metaphysical speculation. It is only in the Upanishads (see VEDA), however, that we meet with the first attempts at some kind of systematic treatment of the great problems of mundane existence, and of the nature of the absolute spirit, and its relation to the human mind. The drift of speculative inquiry in those days, as ever afterwards, is determined by two cardinal notions which are never questioned, and have assumed the force of axioms in Hindu philosophy—viz. the pantheistic notion of the spiritual unity of all sentient beings, and the transmigration of souls. To the Hindu mind the latter notion seems the necessary consequence of the former. All individual souls are identical in nature, having emanated from, and being destined to return to, the infinite, all-pervading spiritual essence, the Brahman or Âtman. The apparent difference of the spiritual element in different kinds of animated beings (elemental gods, men, animals, plants) is due to a greater or less degree of contamination with matter, and consequent obscuriation; and it is only by a gradual process of improvement and purification, in repeated terms of bodily existence—i.e. through metempsychosis—that lower beings can raise themselves to the state of purity requisite for their union with the Supreme Spirit (paramâtman). Ignorance of its own real nature, and of its identity with the world-soul, is what alone keeps the individual soul chained to matter, and to material existence with its hateful accompaniment of passion and suffering. To dispel this ignorance by setting forth the true relations between the individual being and the Brahman, as a preliminary to final emancipation, is the task and aim of philosophy.
Six philosophical systems (dars'ana) are recognised by orthodox Hindus, which fall, however, into three pairs so closely connected that each pair forms a common school of philosophy—viz. Mîmâṃsâ and Vedânta, Sâṅkhya and Yoga, Nyâya and Vaiś'chika. Nothing certain is as yet known as to their date or order. The tenets of each system are propounded in a manual of concise aphorisms (sûtra), ascribed to the respective founder, and commented upon by numerous writers.
The Mīmāṃsā—or properly Pārva-Mīmāṃsā, 'Prior Inquiry'—is mainly a systematic exposition of the principles of scriptural interpretation. Its chief object is to maintain the authority of the Veda, and to urge the necessity of performing the duties enjoined therein, especially those of a ceremonial kind, with a view to securing the benefits, temporal and eternal, accruing from these meritorious works as the logical effect of an operative cause. A philosophical basis is secured for these dogmatic theories by the inclusion of verbal communication (s'abda) among the five or six sources of knowledge, or modes of proof, agreed upon by both schools of the Mīmāṃsā. The sage Jaimini is the reputed founder of this school, and author of its fundamental sūtras, which were afterwards commented upon and supplemented by S'abara Svāmin (? c. 500 A.D.) and Kumārilā Bhaṭṭa (c. 700).
The Vedānta, i.e. 'end of the Veda'—as the Uttara-Mīmāṃsā ('Later Inquiry') is more commonly called—is the system most closely in accord with the development of religious thought in Brahmanical India. In its main features it simply formulates and carries on the speculations of the older Upanishads. According to this system, God is the omniscient and omnipotent cause, efficient as well as material, of the world: He is both creator and nature; and at the consummation of things all are resolved into Him. The individual soul is of the same essence as the supreme one; it emanates from Him like one of the sparks that issue from a blazing fire, and ultimately returns to Him. It is not a free agent, but ruled by God; its activity—the source of its suffering—being solely due to its bodily organs. Whilst the evolution of the elements and organised bodies is minutely expounded in the original aphorisms—the Brahma-sūtras of Bādarāyana—the questions as to the raison d'être of material existence and the origin of evil find no satisfactory explanation. It is only by a later school of Vedāntists, represented by the famous theologian S'aukara-āchārya (q.v.), in his commentary on those sūtras, that a solution is found in the theory that the material world has no real existence, but is a mere illusion (māyā). This school is called the Advaita, or non-duality, school of Vedānta philosophy. In opposition to it arose two other schools, both of which identify the supreme spirit with Vishnu—viz. that of Rāmānuja (11th century), the founder of the S'rī-Vaishnava sect, usually called the Viśiṣṭādvaita, or qualified non-duality school, because they allow the Brahman to be 'qualified' by all good qualities, and to be 'distinct' from matter; and the school of Madhva-āchārya (12th century), called the Dvaita, or duality, school from their maintaining the supreme spirit to be distinct both from man and from matter. These schools in fact show a certain leaning towards Sāṅkhya doctrines. The Rāmānujas and other Vaishnava sects—especially the one founded by Chaitanya (c. 1500)—have, moreover, grafted on the Vedānta the doctrine and practices of bhakti (implicit faith, fervent devotion), which had early found expression in works such as the famous philosophic episode of the Mahābhārata, the Bhagavadgītā (trans. by J. C. Thomson, and by K. T. Telang), and the Bhāgavatapurāṇa, and had been formulated in the S'āṅghīya-Bhakti-sūtra (trans. by E. B. Cowell).
The Sāṅkhya system, as propounded in the Sāṅkhya-sūtras ascribed to Kapila, represents the materialistic school of orthodox Indian philosophy. It maintains the eternal co-existence of a material first cause—the mūla-prakṛiti, or prime originant (plastic nature); also called pradhāna, or 'principal (cause)'—and a plurality of spiritual entities or selves (purusha) connected with matter from all eternity. From the material first cause, devoid of intelligence, the phenomenal universe has been developed by a gradual process of unconscious evolution. The school, thus denying the existence of an intelligent ruler (is'vara), is often called 'godless' (nirīśvara). The most popular summary of the doctrines of this system is the Sāṅkhya-sāra (trans. by H. J. Colebrooke, and by J. Davies), by Vijñāna Bhikshu (16th century).
The Yoga school, founded by Patanjali, accepts the speculative system of the Sāṅkhya with its twenty-four principles; but adds thereto a twenty-fifth—viz. the 'nirguṇa Purusha' ('the self devoid of attributes'), the supreme god of the school, whence the Yoga is also called the Theistic (ses'vara) Sāṅkhya. Moreover, the school has developed, as its most characteristic feature, a complicated system of ascetic practices for the mortification of the senses, with a view to bringing about, even during life, a spiritual union (yoga) with the supreme spirit.
The Nyāya and Vaiśeṣika, though differing from each other on some important points, such as the number of the modes of proof, may be considered as two branches of a single analytical system of philosophy which supplement each other and are commonly studied together. The Nyāya (lit. 'method,' 'rule'), ascribed to Gotama (or Gautama, also called Akṣapāda), though, like the other systems, it professes to deal with the whole round of metaphysical subjects necessary for complete knowledge and final emancipation, is especially remarkable for the very complete system of dialectics which it has developed, and which has gained for it the title of the Hindu science of logic. A regular argument, or complete syllogism (nyāya), according to this system, consists of five members—viz. (a) the proposition (pratijñā): e.g. 'this hill is fiery'; (b) the reason (hetu): 'for it smokes'; (c) the instance (udāharaṇa): 'as a culinary hearth'; (d) the application (upanayana): 'accordingly the hill is smoking'; (e) the conclusion (nigamana): 'therefore it is fiery.' The Vaiśeṣika system, put forward by Kaṇāda, also called Kāś'yapa, whilst on the whole accepting the analytical principles of the Nyāya, occupies itself more especially with the physical or cosmic aspect of metaphysics; its name being derived from the assumption of atoms (anu), or ultimate substances possessed of separate individuality (or 'particularity,' viśeṣa), which are innumerable and eternal, and of which the phenomenal world is composed. Their aggregation, according to the original view of the school, is caused by an invisible force (adṛiṣṭa), whilst at a later stage it is ascribed to a supreme soul (paramātmān), distinct from the individual souls (jīvātman) forming the immaterial atoms.
Of heterodox systems of philosophy—besides those of the Jainas (q.v.) and Buddhists (q.v.)—only one deserves special mention—viz. the Chārvākas, or Lokāyatikas ('materialists'). The doctrines of this school, traditionally ascribed to Brihaspati, admit but one source of knowledge and proof—viz. perception. According to them there is neither a supreme spirit, nor a future life, nor a soul distinct from the body; and the sole end of man is enjoyment derived from sensual pleasures.
A kind of mystic philosophy—in the sense in which the peculiar practices of the Yoga are regarded as such—underlies the doctrines promulgated by the Tantras, the religious text-books of the numerous sects of Sāktas—i.e. worshippers of the sāktī, or active divine energy, personified in some female deity, especially in one of the many forms of Pārvatī, the wife of Śiva. In its origin, the worship of the female principle as a means of obtaining transcendental powers is probably based on the Sāṅkhya notion of the prakṛiti (fem.) or plastic material principle as the prime cause of the universe; and considering that this form of belief is referred to amongst the heterodox doctrines contended against by Śāṅkarāchārya (? c. 700 A.D.), it would seem to be of tolerable antiquity, though probably not in the grossly licentious form in which it is inculcated in many of the Tantric writings. The number of original Tantras is usually fixed at sixty-four. The best-known works of this class are the Rudrayātmala, Kulārnava, Syāmārahasya, and Kālikātāntra.
The best native survey of the Indian systems (except Mimāṃsā) is Mādava's Sarvadarśanasangraha (trans. by E. B. Cowell and A. E. Gough); for other accounts, see Colebrooke's Essays, and Goldstücker's Literary Remains.
(3) Grammar (vyākaraṇa).—Grammatical research in India probably goes back to nearly as early times as the redaction of the Vedic hymns. The work traditionally accepted as the Vedāṅga-treatise in this science—viz. the Aṣṭādhyāyī, or 'eight chapters' of aphoristic rules, by Pāṇini (q.v.)—marks the very highest point of its development, and would seem to presuppose a long period of growth. To the same author is ascribed the original treatise of another Vedāṅga—viz. phonetics (s'ikshā), treating of the nature of the letters and accents, and the proper mode of sounding them. To this latter branch of science have to be referred the Prātis'ākhyas, elaborate treatises on the phonetic changes undergone by words in the connected form of the Vedic texts. Such treatises are in existence for all the Samhitās, except the Sāma-veda; those of the Rik and Atharvan being ascribed to Śaunaka, that of the Vājasanayi-samhitā to Kātyāyana, whilst the author of the Taittirya-prātis'ākhya is unknown. Whether these works are anterior or posterior to Pāṇini is still doubtful. Here must also be mentioned the oldest work on etymology and Vedic interpretation, Yāska's Nirukta, which is probably older than Pāṇini's grammar. Pāṇini's rules were partially amended and supplemented in Kātyāyana's Vārttikas, which on their part were critically examined by Patanjali (? 2d century B.C.), in his Mahābhāshya, or 'great commentary.' So minute and complete was the grammatical analysis of the language presented in these works that the efforts of subsequent authors of grammars were mainly directed towards the best rearrangement of the linguistic matter for practical educational purposes. The most important of these grammars, forming the text-books of special grammatical schools, are the Chāndra-vyākaraṇa, by Chandra-gomin of Kashmir (2d century, A.D.); the Kāntantra, by Sarvavarmaṇ (? 6th century); the text-book of the Kālāpa or Kaumāra school; the Sārasvatī prakriyā, by Anubhūti-svarūpāchārya; the Haima-vyākaraṇa, by Hemachandra (12th century); the Mugdha-bodha, by Vopadeva (13th century); and the Siddhānta-kaumudī, by Bhaṭṭojī-dikshita (17th century).
(4) Lexicography.—Native dictionaries (kosha), generally composed in verse, are either homonymous or synonymous. In the former the words explained are usually arranged according to the final consonant and then according to the number of syllables they contain. The most famous dictionary (chiefly synonymous), and one of the oldest, is the Amarakosha, or 'Immortal treasury,' by Amarasiṃha (c. 550). Of others the most important are Hemachandra's Abhidhāna-chintāmaṇi, Halāyudha's Abhidhāna-ratnamālā (11th century), and the Medinī (c. 13th century).
(5) Prosody (chhandas).—The privilege of representing this science among the Vedāṅgas is assigned to the Chhandah-sūtra, ascribed to Pingala, who is traditionally identified with Patanjali, the gram- marian. But, strange to say, the section of this work treating of Vedic metres is very meagre, whilst the chapter on post-Vedic metres is tolerably complete, and, with a commentary on it by Halāyudha (probably the lexicographer), still forms one of the chief authorities on prosody. Of other important manuals may be mentioned the Vṛitta-ratnākara, or 'jewel-mine of rhythms,' by Kedārabhaṭṭa (before the 13th century); and the Chhandomanjari, or 'cluster of metres,' by Gaṅgādāsa. See Colebrooke's excellent essay on Sanskrit and Prākṛit Metres, Misc. Ess. ii.
(6) Music (saṅgīta).—The existing treatises on music are of comparatively modern origin. The two most important are the Samgīta-ratnākara, or 'jewel-mine of harmony,' by Śārṅgadeva, and the Samgīta-darpaṇa, or 'mirror of harmony,' by Dāmodara. These works treat not only of music proper—including the notes, melodies, and measures, singing, concerted music, and instruments—but also of dancing, acting, and mimic representation.
(7) Rhetoric (alankāra-sāstra).—The theory of poetic composition and the approved forms of literary style has been a favourite subject with Hindu writers; and the result of their labours is a minute classification of the various forms of composition, and an elaborate system of rules regarding the different sentiments and forms of speech applicable to certain characters and conditions of life. Dramatic poetry, as the most varied form of literary composition, usually occupies a large share of the attention of rhetorical writers. The Bharata-sāstra, which is only imperfectly known, is considered the most ancient of the existing manuals of this art. Whether the author preceded the brilliant period of artificial poetry from the fifth century of our era onwards is still uncertain. The earliest work the date of which has been fairly ascertained is the Kāvyādarsa, 'mirror of poetry,' by Daṇḍin (6th century). Of other works on poetics generally may be mentioned the Kāvyā-prakāśa, or 'lustre of poetry,' by Mammata (c. 12th century), and especially the Sāhitya-darpaṇa, or 'mirror of composition' (trans. in Bibl. Ind.), by Viśvanātha Kavirāja (15th century), the standard authority on literary criticism. The favourite manual of dramaturgy is the Daśarūpa, or 'ten forms' (of plays), by Dhananjaya (c. 10th century).
(8) Medicine (ayurveda, vaidyasāstra).—The oldest systematic treatises on medical subjects are the Samhitās of Charaka and Suśruta (? c. 550 A.D.). Both works are composed in verse mixed with prose sections, and are characterised by great diffuseness. Of later handbooks of medical science may be mentioned Vāgbhaṭa's Aṣṭāṅgahṛdaya and Bhāvamīra's Bhāvaprakāśa; whilst the Rājanighaṇṭu, by the Kashmirian Narahari, is the most approved manual of materia medica. Cf. T. A. Wise, Commentary on Hindu Medicine (1845), and History of Medicine (vol. i. 1867).
(9) Astronomy and Mathematics.—This science appears as one of the Vedāṅgas, or members of the Veda; and the treatise which has been handed down as such in the Rik and Yajus recensions—viz. the Jyotiṣam—presents indeed a comparatively primitive appearance, as it knows only a lunar year of 360 days, and mentions neither the zodiac nor the planets. Much the same phase of knowledge is represented by some other works, such as the Gārgī Samhitā (? c. 50 B.C.). A new scientific era, brought about by a knowledge of Greek astronomy, commenced about 250 A.D., and gave rise, in the first place, to five works called Siddhānta (Sūryasiddhānta, &c.), and later on to the standard works on astronomy—viz. Aryabhaṭa's Aryabhatīyam (c. 500), Varāhamihira's Brihatsaṃhitā (c. 540), Brahmagupta's Brahmasiddhānta (c. 625), and Bhāskara Āchārya's Sūryasīromanī (1150).