Soul

Soul, a term used with various significance both in philosophical terminology and in the language of everyday life. Soul is sometimes the immaterial and immortal part of man as opposed to his body; soul is sometimes distinguished from intelligence as the resolute, energetic, emotional from the calmly contemplative; and when soul and spirit are contrasted, the soul is the lower phase of conscious life (sometimes the animal soul) as contrasted with the highest, noblest, and godlike element. A like confusion obtains in other languages; the German seele and geist are opposed nearly as life principle to mind, and as the emotional to the intellectual and spiritual. The confusion dates from the early times of Greek philosophy. In general, psyche (usually translated 'soul') is opposed to nous, 'intelligence,' and also, especially in religious philosophy, to pneuma, 'spirit,' the divine element in man. Plato (q.v.) divided the soul into (1) the rational, (2) the spirited or irascible, and (3) the appetitive elements. With Aristotle the psyche is practically the vital principle in plants as well as animals. In Neoplatonism (q.v.; and see also PLOTINUS) the psychical side of man was treated with disrespect as the part to be mortified. The doctrine of a world-soul has its roots in early speculation (see ANIMA MUNDI), and connects with some types of Pantheism (q.v.); see also MICROCOSM. Opposing views as to the origin of the individual soul, creationism, and traducianism are explained in the article dealing with the belief in Pre-existence (q.v.). The Transmigration (q.v.) of the soul is separately treated. See also the articles PSYCHOLOGY, PERSONALITY, IMMORTALITY, APPARTITIONS, SECOND SIGHT, HELL, ANIMISM, and those on the great authors named at PHILOSOPHY.