Switzerland.

Switzerland. The republic of Switzerland is a confederation of twenty-two cantons, three being divided into half-cantons, situated in the centre of Europe between France, Germany, Austria, and Italy. The greatest length from east to west is 216 miles; the width from north to south being 137 miles; area, 15,981 sq. m. The population in 1850 was 2,392,740; in 1895, 2,986,848. The following table (arranged in alphabetical order) gives the results of the census of 1888. The ordinary name is put first, followed by the French name in the German cantons, and by the German in the French ones. F. or G. or F.G. indicates that the majority speak French, or German, or both. When neither P. nor R.C. is appended, it is to be understood that the canton is partly Protestant and partly Catholic.

Copyright 1892 in U.S.
by J. B. Lippincott
Company.

Surface.—The area of Switzerland (15,981 sq. m., of which 11,443 are classed as 'productive' and 4538 as 'unproductive') is distributed over four river-basins—those of the Rhine, the Rhone, the Inn, and the Ticino, a tributary of the Po. The Confederation is bounded on the S. by a part of the main chain of the Eastern Alps, running from south-west to north-east, on the W. and NW. by the Jura, and on the N. by the Rhine. The Pennine Chain of the Alps lies to the south of the valley of the Rhone, on the north of which valley are the Bernese Alps extending from the Lake of Geneva to the Grimsel. East of the Bernese Alps is the St Gothard group, with its ramifications in the direction of Lucerne and Glarus. The Rhætian Alps are east of the Pennine Chain. A broad fertile plain extends from the Lake of Geneva to the Lake of Constance. The lowest level on Swiss territory is 646 feet on the banks of Lake Lugano; the highest is 15,217, the summit of Monte Rosa. Of the 4538 sq. m. of land classed as 'unproductive' 3229 are covered by rocks, moraine, &c., 711 by glaciers, 535 by lakes, and 63 by towns and villages. The largest lakes in Switzerland are those of Geneva and Constance; there are fifteen which cover an area of over 3 sq. m. each. There are numerous waterfalls, the highest (1002 feet) being the Staubbach in the Bernese Oberland. The Falls of the Rhine at Schaffhausen are upwards of 80 feet in height, and have been called a 'miniature Niagara.' There are about 470 glaciers, the largest being the Gross Aletsch, 15 miles in length. In Valais a greater surface is covered by glaciers than in any other canton; there are, how- ever, no glaciers in eleven cantons. In the Central Alps the limit of perpetual snow varies from 9250 to 9020 feet.

Geology.—The geological structure, assisted by denudation, gives the country its picturesque character. In the south the chain of the Western and Central Alps consists of a series of crystalline masses lying south-west and north-east, covered on the northern slope by sedimentary rocks belonging to the Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous formations. These coverings of sedimentary rocks are much folded, and overlap, forming limestone cliffs (Wetterhorn, Eiger, Jungfrau, &c.). To the north is the Jura range, a chain of regularly folded and anticlinal hills with longitudinal valleys often intersected by ravines. The wide plateau between the Jura and the Alps consists of tertiary deposits of sandstone and clay, partly lake and sea deposits; it is covered also by deposits of ancient glacier-moraines and gravels of the last glacial epoch. Few metallic deposits are to be found in Switzerland; those which exist cannot be worked owing to the irregularity of the veins. In Valais there are coal-formations metamorphosed into crystalline rocks, the coal being changed into anthracite of very irregular size. Salt is obtained in the valley of the Rhine at Rheinfelden. See ALPS, JURA, &c.

Climate.—In a country where the height above the sea-level is from 646 feet—where the almond, the fig, and the olive ripen in the open air—to 15,217, the region of perpetual snow, there is great variety in the climate. There is a variation of about 34$\backslash frac\{1\}\{2\}$° F. in the mean temperature; at Bellinzona it is 54$\backslash frac\{1\}\{2\}$° F.; at Geneva, 49$\backslash frac\{1\}\{2\}$°; Interlaken, 48$\backslash frac\{1\}\{2\}$°; at the Hospice on the Great St Bernard it falls to 30°, and on the Theodule Pass to 20°.

Language.—The population is composed of four distinct ethnical elements. The language of 71.3 per cent. of the population (2,092,479) is German; of 21.8 (637,710), French; of 5.3 (156,482), Italian; of 1.6 (46,941), Romansch or Ladin.

Religion.—By the federal constitution liberty of conscience and belief is declared to be inviolable, and the free exercise of worship is guaranteed within the limits compatible with public order and decency. No bishopric can be established in Switzerland without the consent of the Confederation. There is no federal church, each canton has its own ecclesiastical constitution and organisation, and the majority of the citizens can dispose of the church funds (derived from a variety of sources) belonging to each canton. By the census of 1888, 1,724,869 (58.8 per cent.) are Protestants, 1,189,662 (40.5) are Catholics, 8384 (0.3) are Jews, and 10,697 (0.4) belong to other confessions.

Constitution and Government.—The republic of Switzerland became a federal state (Bundestaat) in 1848: previously it consisted of a league of semi-independent states or cantons. The present constitution, based on laws passed in 1848 and revised in 1874, was constructed with the view of satisfying both cantonal and national elements, and is therefore essentially a work of compromise. It is the first constitution which was entirely the work of the Swiss without foreign influence, although its authors studied that of the United States. The political structure of Switzerland is built up in three tiers—the Commune, the Canton, and the Federal Assembly. In the communes all local matters are administered by two governing bodies—the Communal Assembly (which is purely legislative), composed of all male citizens who have attained the age of twenty, and the Communal Council, the executive of the former body, by whom it is elected. Each canton has its own constitution and local government. The constitutions of the several cantons vary considerably, but all are based on the principle of the absolute sovereignty of the people, subject to certain restrictions chiefly regarding military and legal matters imposed by the federal constitution: they are subject also to the ratification of the Confederation. In Uri, the two half-cantons of Appenzell, and in Glarus there still exists the ancient Landsgemeinde, an open-air gathering of all those possessing votes, who meet every spring to legislate on cantonal affairs. These cantons possess a representative power in their Landrath, and an executive power in the Regierungsrath. In other cantons the citizens elect representatives to the cantonal council from electoral districts. The citizen of a commune is ipso facto citizen of the canton in which his commune is situated, and therefore votes in the election of the cantonal council. In the majority of cantons this body choose from among their own number an executive, who superintend all cantonal affairs and the government of the communes; the members also transact business with the federal government and with that of other cantons. The supreme legislative authority of the Confederation is vested in a parliament of two chambers, the Council of the States (Ständerath) and the National Council (Nationalrath), which represent the supreme government of the country, under reserve of the referendum or vote of the people. The Council of the States consists of forty-four members, each canton having two representatives, and each half-canton one. The regulations as to their election and duration of term of office differ in each canton. The National Council consists of 147 members, elected in each canton in the proportion of one deputy for every 20,000 of the population. The electoral districts cannot be made up of parts of different cantons, and are fixed by the Federal Assembly after every census; the election takes place once every three years. Every male who has attained the age of twenty and possesses the rights of citizenship according to the constitution of his canton, is entitled to vote, and any voter other than a clergyman or an official appointed by the Federal Council is eligible for election as a representative. The sum of 16s. a day is paid during session to the members of the Council of the States and the National Council. These two chambers each elect a president and vice-president, and meet at Berne at least twice a year in June and December, together forming the Federal Assembly. This body controls the general administration of the Confederation; they alone can declare war, make peace, or conclude treaties with foreign powers. The executive authority of the Federal Assembly is deputed to the Federal Council composed of seven members, elected for a period of three years and each receiving a salary of £480 per annum, except the president, who receives £540. No canton can have more than one citizen in this council; its duties are divided among seven departments, one member being charged with the direction of each. The president of the Federal Council, who is also president of the Confederation, is chosen annually at a united meeting of the Council of the States and the National Council from among the members of the Federal Council. The president and the vice-president (who is chosen at the same time) are elected for one year, and cannot be re-elected within twelve months of the expiration of their term of office.

Referendum and Initiative.—These are two political institutions peculiar to Switzerland, the furthest developments of democracy yet attained. In 1831 an article was introduced into the constitution of St Gall, declaring 'the sovereignty of the people, who have the right not only to pass their own laws, but also to veto them.' This paved the way for the referendum, which has now spread throughout the whole Confederation, and by means of which all legislative acts passed in the Federal or Cantonal Assemblies may be referred to the people en masse. It is of two kinds, compulsory and optional, both as regards federal and cantonal matters. In those cantons where all laws adopted by the representative body of the canton must be submitted to the people it is compulsory; in those cantons where it may be demanded by a certain number of votes it is optional. With the exception of Freiburg, cantonal referendum exists in those cantons where there is no Landsgemeinde. In the majority of cantons 5000 signatures are required in order to obtain a referendum for cantonal laws. The compulsory referendum regarding federal legislation was established in 1848, but was then limited to the revision of the constitution. That of 1874 contains an article extending the exercise of the popular vote, when demanded by 30,000 citizens or eight cantons, to all laws and resolutions of a general nature passed by the Federal Assembly, this being the optional form of the federal referendum. Since the referendum was fully developed in 1874 it has been put in operation on an average once a year; the decisions have generally shown a conservative rather than a radical tendency on the part of the people.

Initiative is the exercise of the right granted to voters to initiate proposals for the enactment of new laws or for the alteration or abolition of old ones. By this means the 'sovereign people' have always the power to bring forward the discussion of legislative matters, even in the event of their representatives in the government being unwilling to do so. Fifty thousand signatures are required to obtain the initiative regarding federal legislation, and in the majority of cantons 5000 for cantonal matters.

Law and Justice.—With the exception of the Federal Bankruptcy Act, applicable throughout the whole of the Confederation, the procedure in civil and criminal matters varies in the different cantons. In the French cantons, with the exception of Geneva, the civil codes are based upon the Code Napoléon, while in the German cantons they differ considerably from each other, and are for the most part original. In Uri and Appenzell there exists not only a code, but customary laws, to which the court gives effect. In ten cantons representing twenty per cent. of the entire population capital punishment exists. By the federal constitution, 'no sentence of death can be pronounced for a political offence.'

Revenue and Expenditure.—The revenue is derived chiefly from the postal and telegraph services, the customs, powder manufactories, the tax for exemption from military service, and from the real property of the Confederation, the federal government having no power to levy direct taxes, as the separate cantons have. The budget of 1898 estimated the revenue at £3,635,000, and the expenditure at £3,573,600. Customs produce £1,840,000. The public debt in 1898 amounted to £3,355,665, but the state property, including railways, was valued at £7,522,528, leaving a large credit balance. The government agreed to subscribe £600,000 (by contributions from the cantons) towards the cost of the Simplon Tunnel (q.v.), to be finished in 1994. The proceeds of the federal alcohol monopoly, about £255,000 annually, are divided among the cantons. Each canton has its own budget of revenue and expenditure and debts. The combined debts of the cantons amount to about £10,000,000, which is covered by cantonal property, mostly in land.

Army.—The federal constitution forbids the maintenance of a standing army; still, it declares that 'every Swiss is liable to military service.' The army is therefore essentially a citizen force drawn from all classes of the people, being intended only for defensive purposes and to secure the neutrality of the country. It is divided into three classes—the Élite or active army, in which all citizens are liable to serve from the age of twenty to thirty-two; the Landwehr, from thirty-two to forty-four; and the Landsturm, consisting of men from seventeen to fifty not incorporated in the two former classes. Every Swiss keeps his rifle and kit, and in the case of a cavalry soldier his horse, at his own home. Cavalry recruits provide their own horses, which they may use for agricultural or other purposes during the remainder of the year; one-tenth of the price is refunded annually by government. The total strength of the army, not including the Landsturm, is: Élite, 125,620; Landwehr, 80,715; total, 206,335. With the exception of the heads of the ordnance departments, the General Staff and the Corps of Instructors—about 200 in number—are the only officers permanently paid and employed.

Education.—Primary instruction is compulsory, unsectarian, and is provided gratuitously at the cost of each canton, whose officials control the administration and inspection of the schools; thus the details of organisation vary considerably in the different cantons. The period of compulsory attendance is usually from the age of five or six up to fourteen, fifteen, and even sixteen. In many cantons those children who do not enter the secondary schools must pass into the supplementary ones, which generally meet twice a week, the aim of the teachers being to help the scholars to retain what they have learned in the primary schools. There are five universities on the German model—Basel, Bern, Zurich, Geneva, Lausanne, and (for Catholics only) Freiburg; there is also an academy at Neuchâtel, which does not, however, possess the four faculties. The Polytechnic at Zurich is a technical college under the control of the federal authorities, attended by 900 students, the annual cost of maintenance being £20,000. The most important technical schools are the Technikum at Winterthur, those of silk-weaving at Zurich, watchmaking at Geneva, La Chaux de Fonds, Neuchâtel, &c., and wood-carving at Meyringen. Practical as well as theoretical instruction in agriculture is given in the farm-schools at Strickhof and Rütte, and during the winter months short courses of lectures are given gratuitously in the rural districts on horticulture, vine-growing, cattle-breeding, &c.

Agriculture, &c.—All the land in the Confederation is freehold, the cost of transfer in each canton being extremely moderate. More than one-half of the arable land is devoted to cereals; still in 1889 flour to the value of £3,907,550 was imported. Cattle-breeding is an industry of great importance. The Swiss possess two excellent breeds, the particoloured and the brown. The former are amongst the heaviest in Europe, the milk being admirably adapted for making cheese and butter. The brown race is a medium-sized breed, its headquarters in Schwyz, Lucerne, and Zurich. There are upwards of 5500 cheesemaking establishments, and the following are the exports in connection with this industry: cheese, worth £1,561,191, to France, Italy, Germany; condensed milk (£438,071) to Great Britain; and butter (£50,742) to France. Tobacco is grown chiefly in the cantons of Valais, Vaud, Freiburg, Bern, and Aargau; the quality is by no means good, but the exports (including cigars and cigarettes) amount to £90,000 a year. The vine flourishes best on the slopes surrounding the lakes of Geneva, Neuchâtel, Biel, and Zurich. The average annual production of wine amounts to 31,266,400 gallons; but about 15,400,000 gallons are annually imported, exceeding the exports by 11,000,000.

Commerce.—Little or no coal is to be found in the Confederation, there are no canals or navigable rivers, the country is situated far from the seacoast, and nearly the whole of the raw material and half-finished goods have to be imported. Still, in spite not only of these drawbacks but of the protective policy adopted by the neighbouring powers, there is a larger general trade per head of the population than in almost any other European country, amounting to over £13 for imports and £9, 13s. for exports. In 1895 the imports amounted to £39,204,600, and the exports to £28,177,000; while if we include the transit trade the totals are over £60,000,000 for imports and over £50,000,000 for exports. The trade for 1890 with the principal countries was:

The textile industries are the most important, the chief centres being Zurich, Basel, Glarus, and St Gall, the total value of the goods exported being in 1897, £12,484,400, including silk, cotton, and linen fabrics, besides raw silk to the value of £1,468,000. Next comes the watchmaking industry, established at Geneva in 1587, which spread to the cantons of Neuchâtel, Bern, and Vaud. The annual value of the watches, &c., exported in 1895-98 amounted to £4,120,000, machinery to £1,360,000, and cheese to £1,520,000. Wood-carving, introduced in the Oberland about 1820, employs 4000 persons. In 1899 there were 2500 miles of railway. The gross amount of money brought annually by tourists into the 'Play-ground of Europe' is estimated at £4,000,000.

History.—The occupants of the Lake-dwellings (q.v.) were the first inhabitants known to us. At the time of the Roman invasion the two principal tribes in possession of the country were the Celtic Helvetii and the Rhætii (of doubtful affinities). In 58 B.C. the Helvetii were partially subdued by Julius Cæsar, but it was not till 15 B.C. that they were completely subjugated by Augustus. These became part of the Roman empire, and during the three following centuries trade was developed and military roads were constructed, e.g. the St Gothard, the Great St Bernard, and that crossing the Julier. The chief Roman settlements were Aventicum (Avenches), Augusta Rauracorum (Kaiser Augst) and Vindonissa (Königsfelden). After the conquest of Gaul Helvetia was invaded by the Burgundians and the Alemanni 450 A.D. The former took possession of western Switzerland, and the latter settled east of the Aar, in the district since known as 'La Suisse Romande.' In the 7th century, during the domination of the Frank kings of the Merovingian dynasty, order was restored, and Christianity preached by SS. Gallus, Columbanus, and others. About this period the great monasteries of Einsiedeln, Dissentis, St Gall, and Pfäfers were founded, which soon became centres of progress and learning. Much of what later became Switzerland then formed part of the Holy Roman Empire, for which it was ruled by wealthy abbots and nobles, among whom were the Counts of Zähringen. This powerful family became extinct in 1218, and the country was distracted by internal wars. In 1273 Rudolph of Hapsburg (whose castle was situated in what is now the canton of Aargau) was raised to the imperial throne; after his death (1291) a short period of anarchy ensued in the empire. The inhabitants of Uri,

Schwyz, and Unterwalden then felt the necessity of joining together in order to defend their common interests. The Confederates (Eidgenossen) did not, however, throw off their allegiance to the emperor; their hostility was rather directed against the despotic power exercised by the bailiffs or middlemen, some of whose acts of tyranny have been described in Schiller's Wilhelm Tell, which is founded on the legends belonging to that period (see TELL). Out of this defensive alliance sprang that pact which constituted the germ of the present Swiss Confederation, but which from 1291 to 1874 has passed through seven distinct phases—viz.: (1) The League of the Three Communities, 1291; (2) The Confederation of eight cantons, 1353; (3) The Confederation of thirteen cantons, 1513; (4) The Helvetic Republic, 1798; (5) The Act of Mediation, with nineteen cantons, 1803; (6) The Federal Pact, with twenty-two cantons, 1815; (7) The Federal Constitution of 1848, revised in 1874.

In 1307 it is stated that Werner Stauffacher of Schwyz, Walter Furst of Uri, and Arnold of the Melchthal in Unterwalden (representatives of the three leagued cantons) met together in the meadow of Grütti by the Lake of Lucerne, and took an oath to free their soil from the Austrian oppressors. They swore that they would be 'all for each, and each for all,' which still remains the motto of the Confederation. Five years later the Confederates were called upon to vindicate this oath, and defend their country against Leopold of Austria. In 1315, while marching at the head of a powerful army through a defile beneath the heights of Morgarten, he was surprised by the Swiss, who hurled down stones and trunks of trees, completely routing their opponents. In 1332 Lucerne joined the alliance of the Three Communities, and the League was increased to four Forest States or Cantons (Vierwaldstüthen). Bern and Zurich had become imperial fiefs, and the growing importance of the former excited jealousy in western Switzerland, with the result that in 1339 a large force laid siege to Laupen, but were defeated by the Bernese under Rudolph von Erlach. By 1353 Bern, Zurich, Glarus, and Zug joined the Confederation, which thus attained its second phase of eight cantons. The Anstrians were again routed at Sempach in 1386, and in 1388 at Näfels; and subsequently in 1393, with the view of strengthening the federal sovereignty, the confederates drew up the document known as the 'Convention of Sempach.' The Swiss were next engaged in a struggle on the French frontier with Charles the Bold; they defeated him at Grandson in 1476, again at Morat, and finally in 1477 before the walls of Nancy, where Charles himself was slain. The unequal distribution of the booty taken at Grandson and Morat occasioned much jealousy between the five rural states or cantons and the cities of Zurich, Bern, and Lucerne; the dissolution of the Confederation seemed imminent, but owing to the intervention of Nicholas von der Flie an understanding was effected at the Diet of Stanz in 1481, laws were made as to the admission of new cantons, and separate alliances between them were prohibited. By 1513 Freiburg, Solothurn, Basel, Schaffhausen, and Appenzell were added to the Confederation, this being the third phase of its history. In addition to these were associated and protected states, as well as subject territories, belonging to one or other of the various cantons. Valais, the Grisons, Geneva, Biel, and Mühlhausen were republics. The principality of Neuchâtel, the lands of the Abbey of St Gall, and the bishopric of Basel were ruled by lay or ecclesiastical sovereigns.

The 16th century saw the rise of Protestantism. Zwingli led the van in Zurich, whence the Reforma- tion spread, first to Bern and then northwards; the Forest Cantons, with Zug, Freiburg, and Solothurn, however, remained faithful to the Church of Rome. In 1531 war broke out between the Protestants and Catholics, and at the battle of Kappel, where Zwingli was killed, the Zurichers were defeated by the Forest Cantons. The episcopal and imperial city of Geneva, which had allied itself with Bern and Freiburg against the Dukes of Savoy, became a republic in 1535, and accepted a new civil and ecclesiastical legislation under Calvin. In the following year the Pays du Vaud, long subject to the Dukes of Savoy, was conquered by Bern; the inhabitants became Protestant, and the Reformed doctrines spread into western Switzerland. During the Thirty Years' War Zurich and Bern successfully helped to maintain the neutrality of Switzerland, and by the treaty of Westphalia in 1648 the country was acknowledged by the great powers as an independent state. Bern, since the conquest of Vaud, had become the most powerful canton; the wealthy inhabitants of that city constituted themselves into a close corporation or guild, to which no new members were admitted, and, as in Lucerne, Freiburg, and Solothurn, all official posts were in the hands of the patrician families.

Zurich, Basel, and Schaffhausen were 'semi-aristocratic' cantons, the burghers having a share in the elections, from which, however, the country-people were excluded. The remaining six cantons ruled themselves in the Landsgemeinden or popular assemblies. The internal state of the cantons, however, owing in many cases to a tyrannical administration, showed a need of reform. The subject-territories had particularly to complain of the arbitrary conduct of the bailiffs by whom they were ruled, as well as of the inequality which existed between the inhabitants of town and country. It only required the impetus imparted by the French Revolution to produce a wide-spread rising in Switzerland. In 1798 Vaud declared its independence against Bern, and a French army came to her aid. In other parts of Switzerland similar outbreaks occurred; the French routed the troops of the Forest Cantons and those of the Bernese under General von Erlach at Fraubrunnen and Granholz, the city of Bern was taken, and the ancient Swiss Confederation came to an end.

Till 1798 there had simply been alliances between the different cantons; no real constitution existed, and the establishment of the Helvetic Republic (the fourth phase of the Confederation) was the first attempt at a federal constitution. It was extremely unpopular; not only was it imposed by foreign pressure, but it was against the traditions of the Swiss people. The whole country was torn by two hostile factions till 1803, when Napoleon summoned representatives from both parties to Paris, and gave Switzerland a new constitution, termed the Act of Mediation. St Gall, the Grisons, Aargau, Thurgau, Ticino, and Vaud were added, making nineteen cantons in all, this being the fifth phase of the Confederation. The downfall of Napoleon brought with it the destruction of his work in Switzerland, whose perpetual neutrality as well as the inviolability of her territory was recognised by the congress of Vienna in 1815. Valais, Neuchâtel, and Geneva, which had been annexed to France under the Directory, were added to the existing cantons, which thus became twenty-two in number; each of them was represented at a diet which met alternately at Bern, Zurich, and Lucerne. The decline of the Bourbons had, too, its echo in Switzerland; the patrician families lost the ascendancy they had regained at the beginning of the century, and many of the cantonal constitutions were revised, with the result that the power of the people was greatly increased.

Basel, in spite of armed demonstrations, refused to grant proportional representation, with the result that the canton was divided into two half-cantons.

Religious troubles were added to these political disputes. In Aargau, where the grand council was composed of Protestants and Catholics in equal numbers, the constitution was altered upon a basis of popular representation by which the Protestants gained numerical advantages. In 1841 two thousand Catholic peasants took up arms, but were beaten by the Protestants at Villmergen; eight convents were suppressed, and much valuable property confiscated. The democrats gained ascendancy in Geneva, and in 1842 the same party obtained the upper hand in Valais. In 1844 the grand council of Lucerne entrusted the Jesuits with the direction of public instruction, with the result that the town was attacked by bands of volunteers, who demanded the expulsion of the priests. In defiance of the Federal Pact, Lucerne called to her aid the Forest Cantons, Zug, Freiburg, and Valais, together forming what is known as the Sonderbund, whose members declared that they would preserve this 'separate league' till the convents were re-established and the question of the Jesuits abandoned. In 1847 after the deputies of the Sonderbund had left the Diet it was resolved to dissolve by force of arms this league of the Catholic cantons. The federal army under General Dufour consisted of 50,000 men, the Catholics brought about half that number into the field, and after a campaign of twenty-five days Freiburg was taken, Lucerne and the smaller cantons capitulated, and the struggle came to an end. No sooner had the Sonderbund been dissolved than it became necessary to revive the Federal Pact, and a constitution was adopted for the whole of Switzerland, this being the seventh phase. Owing not only to the development of commerce and industry, but to the difference between the legislature in the cantons, it became necessary in 1874 to revise this constitution, and since then it has been added to and altered.

See, besides works cited at ALPS, ALPINE CLUB, TELL, &c., and others in German or French on the country by Berlepsch, Hottinger, Kaden, Egli, Emminghaus, Wirth, Dierauer, &c., and on the history by Von Müller, Morin, Knonau, Daguet, Vuillemin, Dändliker, Strickler, &c.; Gremlî, The Flora of Switzerland (Eng. trans. 1889); Victor Tissot, Unknown Switzerland (Eng. trans. 1889); Sir F. O. Adams and the present writer, Swiss Confederation (1889); W. A. B. Coolidge, Swiss Travel and Swiss Guidebooks (1889); B. Moses, Federal Government of Switzerland (Oakland, Cal. 1889); Hug and Stead, Switzerland ('Story of the Nations' series, 1890); Murray's Handbook (18th ed. 1891); Baedeker's Switzerland (14th ed. 1891); J. M. Vincent, State and Federal Government in Switzerland (1891); B. Winchester, Swiss Republic (1891); J. A. and Margaret Symonds, Life in the Swiss Highlands (1892); J. Soverby, The Forest Cantons (1892); the monumental Quellen zur Schweizer-geschichte (12 vols. 1877-91); and Grenfell Baker, The Model Republic (1895).

Literature.—The literature of Switzerland, save the unimportant part that falls under Romansch (q.v.) or Italian, is included either in German or in French literature: Bodmer and Gessner are as certainly names of mark in German literature as Rousseau or Cherbuliez are in that of France. Here it may therefore suffice to give the names of Swiss writers treated in separate articles, and refer to them: thus to the German division belong Zwingli, Bullinger, Tschudi, Bodmer, Gessner, Zimmermann, Haller, Lavater, Pestalozzi, Johannes von Müller, Fuseli and Bitzius ('Gothself'); to the French Bonivard, Rousseau, Vattel, Bonnet, Benjamin Constant de Rebecque, Bonstetten, Saussure, Sismondi, Necker (and by origin his daughter Mme. de Staël), Dumont, Töpffer, Vinet, and

Cherbuliez. Calvin and Beza were Genevese by residence; as were Voltaire and Gibbon for many years. The Swiss-German of the country-people is a High German patois.

See the Schweizerisches Idiotikon; and works on the Swiss-German literature by Mörikofer (1861) and Weber (1867); Godet, Histoire Littéraire de la Suisse Française (1889); Rossel, Histoire Littéraire de la Suisse Romande (1889-91).