Wales

Wales, a great peninsula in the west of the island of Britain, bounded by the Irish Sea, St George's Channel, and the Bristol Channel, and touching the (now English) counties of Cheshire, Shropshire, Hereford, and Monmouth. The area is 7363 sq. m., about a fifth larger than Yorkshire. The principality of Wales, administratively a part of England, though differing more or less widely in blood, language, national character, and religious temper, is a mountainous land, and contains Snowdon (q.v.), the highest point in South Britain; North Wales is especially picturesque. The minerals are extremely valuable, and South Wales contains some of the most important coal and iron industries in the United Kingdom. Copper, zinc, lead, tin, and gold are also found. The physical geography, geology, climate, &c. have been already discussed at GREAT BRITAIN, where physical and geological maps of Wales will be found. For the political map, see that of England; the representation is shown at PARLIAMENT, p. 778. The established church is a part of the Church of England, with four episcopal sees; Nonconformists, especially Calvinistic Methodists, Congregationalists, Baptists, and Wesleyans, are very numerous, and claim to be a large majority of the total population. There are university colleges at Aberystwith, Bangor, and Cardiff, incorporated as the University of Wales in 1893, and theological colleges at Lampeter, &c. See the articles on the several Welsh counties, and on the towns such as Cardiff, Swansea, &c. In 1891, 508,036 persons spoke Welsh only, 402,253 both Welsh and English.

History.—The population of Wales contains Brythonic elements mixed with Goidelic and Ivernian or pre-Celtic, probably pre-Aryan (see CELTS). The Silures of Glamorgan and Brecknockshire and east to the Severn were probably Goidelic; so were the Demetæ of Dyfed or west South Wales, but more strongly Ivernian; the Gangani and Decanti of North Wales were mainly Ivernian. Between these were the Ordovices (Oddwy), Brythonic, in the Upper Severn valley. During the Roman occupation Brythonic tribes seem to have encroached on the Goidels and Ivernians; and the Brythons appear to have become largely Latinised. Christianity had been introduced before the end of the 2d century, and extended beyond Roman territory. During the Roman occupation invaders from beyond the North Sea had already given trouble; the south-east of the present England was administered by the 'Count of the Saxon Shore'; the remaining territory, where Goidels and Ivernians had to be dealt with, was under the 'Duke of the Britains,' from southern Scotland to Land's End. When the Romans had gone, the Dux Britanniarum was succeeded by a Gwledig, who ruled over the tribes in the whole of his district, both Brythonic, Goidelic, and Ivernian, the ruling race being Brythonic. A common name for the people of this district was introduced, meaning 'fellow-countrymen,' Combroges, or, in modern form, Cymry, which survives in the names Cumberland and Cambria. Wales is from Wealas, 'foreigners,' the name given by the Anglo-Saxon invaders to the natives of Britain (compare the German Wälsch, used of things Italian and French). Saxon invasions did not for some time much affect this western district; but at length disturbances in the north drove Cunedda Wledig, the ruler of the district, away from the Forth valley where his seat was. He migrated to North Wales, waged war with the Goidelic tribes and expelled them from the Dee to the Teifi, Brythonising the country, except in the north-west corner. This resisted the process for some time, but at length, before 500 A.D., became Brythonic or Welsh in language, though Goidelic and Ivernian legends and traditions long lingered there. In South Wales the Demetæ were hard pressed by the same influence, and squeezed into the modern Pembrokeshire by about 600. The Demetæ of Dyfed and the Silures of Morganwg do not appear to have been conquered, but they were Brythonised; and the Gaelic language thus disappeared from Wales. At the same time Christianity was energetically spread by Cunedda's descendants, of whom many are found in the lists of Welsh saints—e.g. St David Christianised the Ivernian (or Pictish) Menavia (now St Davids), and founded a see there. The Gwledigship, more or less reduced to a shadowy claim of over-lordship over all the tribal chiefs, remained with the descendants of Cunedda, who were princes or kings of Gwynedd, Venedotia, or North-west Wales.

In 577 Ceawlin took Bath, Cirencester, and Gloucester, and thus separated the Britons of Cornwall from those of Wales. In 655 Cadwaladr, in alliance with Penda of Mercia, was defeated, and Penda slain, by Oswiu at Winwædfield. Strathclyde and Cumberland were separated by this battle from Wales. About 720 we find Cadwaladr's grandson, Rhodri (Roderick) Maelwynawg ab Tudwal, leading the Welsh chiefs; and he kept Saxondom at bay until 754, when he died. After his death his two sons quarrelled about Anglesey, while the Welsh chieftaincies fell asunder. From 757 to 795 Offa of Mercia scourged the Welsh; in 795 was the still-remembered battle of Rhuddlan marsh; Shrewsbury and Hereford became English centres; and Offa's Dyke was built from Flintshire to the

Wye. In 768 the church in Gwynedd conformed to the Roman time of keeping Easter, but remained heterodox as regards the celibacy of the clergy. During the 9th century Wales was sorely troubled with Danish invasions. It was for Wales a century of misery, in which, however, Rhodri Fawr (Roderick the Great) succeeded in bringing all the chiefs under one head for some time. Towards the end of the century the Welsh chiefs all came successively under the protection of King Alfred, and the 10th century began quietly. Hywel Dda of Dyfed (Pembrokeshire), and probably of Powys (Upper Severn and Dee), codified the Welsh laws, based on the tribal system. The end of the 10th century was miserable; interneceine strife aggravated and encouraged the attacks of the English and of the Danish sea-rovers. In 1039 Gruffydd ap Llywelyn became king of Gwynedd, and after very varying fortune became in 1055 king of all Wales, except perhaps Morganwg (Glamorganshire). When he destroyed the settlements of Edward the Confessor's Norman friends in Herefordshire, there were no reprisals, but Gruffydd submitted to King Edward. He afterwards broke the peace, and was defeated in 1063 by Harold and Tostig at Rhuddlan; Wales was vehemently attacked, and Gruffydd was murdered by his own people. Wales then submitted from sheer exhaustion.

After 1066 Welsh and English co-operated against William, but in vain; in 1070 William seized Chester; in 1071 Chester was made the centre of a palatine earldom under Hugo de Avranches, and Shrewsbury of one under Roger de Montgomery; in 1072 we find a vassal of Earl Hugh's in Rhuddlan, building Rhuddlan Castle, and Hugh de Montgomery across the Plynlimmon range, harrying north Cardiganshire, while Montgomery Castle was being built. Rival claimants to Welsh principedoms call in Norman aid, while the Black Danes are still, in 1080, invading Dyfed and Anglesey, and attacking Bangor. In 1081, by the battle of Carno (Montgomery) the rightful heirs of Gwynedd and South Wales, Gruffydd ap Cynan ap Iago and Rhys ap Tewdwr, a descendant of Roderick the Great, rescued their provinces from a usurping Trahaearn, prince of Powys. Between 1081 and 1084 the Norman Conquest extended over Monmouthshire, Cardiff and Radnor castles were built, and William entered Wales. Under William Rufus the boundary line was pushed as far back as the Neath River in Glamorganshire, Brecknockshire (Brycheiniawg) was seized, and Earl Hugh of Chester gained a footing in Anglesey. In 1093 Rhys ap Tewdwr was killed by the Brecknock Normans, and so Pembroke and Cardigan were laid open; nothing was left but the mountain country of North-west Wales.

In 1094 a general rising took place; the castles in Gwynedd were seized; the Normans were expelled from Anglesey, and they lost Montgomery Castle; and in 1095 William Rufus marched in person as far as Snowdon, but with no success. In 1096 Monmouthshire and Brecknockshire were retaken, and the Normans by this time held only Glamorganshire and Pembroke Castle. In 1097 William led two more unsuccessful expeditions into Wales. After 1097 the tide turned; in a short time the Normans had their castles again in their hands. From 1100 onwards, under the politic Henry I., districts of country were allotted to the Welsh leaders under conditions of homage and service. Gruffydd ap Cynan growing too strong in Gwynedd among his mountains, Henry led an expedition against him in 1114, and Gruffydd was obliged to agree to a peace; Gwynedd thereafter began to prosper in agriculture, building, and wealth generally, though Gwynedd and Powys (under Cadwgan) were at strife. In South Wales, where in 1111 Henry had planted colonies of Flemings in Pembrokeshire and Gower to strengthen the Norman stations, Gruffydd ap Rhys ap Tewdwr asserted his heirship to the principedom; but though he gained some considerable successes, Wales was reduced to quietness by an expedition under Henry in 1121.

After the death of Henry I. in 1135, there was a wide-spread revolt, and the men of Gwynedd took Carmarthen. Even such districts as Radnorshire were lost by the Normans; under Stephen the royal power had ceased, and the lords marchers or border barons had become simply rival robbers. The Welsh leaders are found operating as far east as Flintshire, in Chester territory, and building a castle at Oswestry. By 1157 we find Gwynedd, under Owain, extending from Flintshire to Towyn (Merioneth); Powys, under Madoc ap Maredudd, extending far down towards Shropshire; and South Wales, under Rhys, from Aberdovey to Kidwelly; but interneceine strife still continues. In 1157 Henry II. leads an expedition into Wales; Madoc of Powys assists him; Owain of Gwynedd is victorious by sea, but defeated by land, and submits; Rhys of South Wales then submits, and suffers loss of lands. Much land was distributed among Norman chiefs, and many diplomatic Norman-Welsh marriages made. Rhys ere long, deprived of sundry lands by force, rose in revolt; he maintained himself till 1162; then submitted to a strong expedition sent against him, aided by the men of Gwynedd; but in 1163 all Wales was in unanimous revolt. Henry's struggle with Becket had begun, and the Welsh expectation of the return of Arthur had become general. In 1165 an extraordinary but unsuccessful effort was made by Henry; and afterwards, being engrossed in his struggle with Becket, he treated the Welsh chiefs as ordinary feudal barons, and allowed them to fight out their own disputes. On this footing the Welsh chiefs swore homage and fealty to Henry, and Rhys of South Wales assisted him against his sons' revolt.

In ecclesiastical matters, the Welsh bishops repudiated the claims of the see of Canterbury, the see of St Davids being considered an archbishopric; but in 1203 the Welsh bishops were enjoined to obey the see of Canterbury. In 1194 Llywelyn ab Iorwerth, the rightful heir, became prince of Gwynedd, upsetting Henry's arrangements of 1170; in 1212 he, in alliance with other princes, attacked the Normans in Powys and Gwynedd, and rapidly extended his conquest during John's struggle with his barons; in 1217 he did homage to Henry III.; in 1219 he had become 'Prince of all Wales,' holding his own, and helping the barons against Henry III.; in 1238 he exacted an oath of fealty to his son Dafydd from the leaders of Wales; and he died in 1240. Dafydd was beleaguered (1245) in Snowdonia by Henry. In 1246 Dafydd was succeeded by Owain and Llywelyn ap Gruffydd, his nephews, who at first surrendered their lordships to Henry; Edward, Henry's young son, cruelly ruled over them, and a successful revolt resulted; in 1258 there was a Welsh-Scottish alliance against Henry III.: Llywelyn, who helped Simon de Montfort against Henry, obtained from Simon the fullest acknowledgment of his entire independence as 'Prince of Wales' saving the homage to the English crown, and this was confirmed by Henry even after the battle of Evesham. But Edward I., after bearing with seizures of certain lands by Llywelyn, delays in reference to homage and certain money payments, appeals to Rome and Canterbury, and an offer of homage to France, declared Llywelyn a rebel in 1276; excommunication followed; and Llywelyn was forced to submission in 1277. In 1281 he broke out again, but was killed near Builth in 1282. In 1283 his brother

Dafydd was executed as a traitor. In 1283 the Statutes of Rhuddlan were passed, retaining Welsh law, modified, organising the government of Wales, and diminishing the too independent power of the Norman barons.

In 1284 Edward II. was born in Carnarvon town, and made Prince of Wales in 1300-1. For several years there were various brief insurrections, some with French assistance. In 1400 Owain ab Gruffydd Fychan, or Owain Glyndyfrdwy, Owain of the Glen of Dee or Owen Glendower, incensed by an encroachment on the part of Lord Grey de Ruthyn, took arms. Henry IV. took the field against him in vain; in 1401 unconscionably severe proscriptive laws ('Ordinances of Wales') were passed against Welshmen: Sir Henry Percy (Hotspur), Justiciary of Chester, was put in command; Owain raided the Severn valley in 1402 as far as Leominster; Henry IV. invaded Wales, but was driven back by extraordinary storms: Owain was recognised as 'Prince of Wales' at Machynlleth in 1402. Thereafter he sided against Henry IV., and allied himself with Hotspur and others for a partition of the kingdom. Henry IV. marching against the Scots, turned aside and intercepted Hotspur marching south, defeating him near Shrewsbury, 1403. Owain, who was in South Wales at the time, was left in possession during 1404, and made an alliance with Charles VI. of France in 1405. He suffered two defeats, in Monmouth and Brecknockshire, in 1405; when French assistance arrived, it could be of little use, and retired. The English entered Wales, but were again driven back by bad weather. Owain fell back in power, and in 1415 he died in obscurity, still holding out; Rhys ab Tewdwr, his associate in the rebellion, and Rhys's brother Meredydd having been executed for treason in 1412. Meredydd's son Owain married Catherine, the widow of Henry V.; their grandson, Henry Tudor, became Henry VII., to the great delight of Wales, which now believed it saw all Myrddin's (Merlin's) prophecies fulfilled, and the British race again ruling in Britain.

By 27 Henry VIII. chap. 26 (A.D. 1536) Wales was incorporated with England, with English laws and liberties; in 1689 the lords marchers' surviving anomalous jurisdiction (with a Lord President and Council at Ludlow) was abolished; in 1831 the Welsh judiciary (Court of Great Sessions) was incorporated in the judicial system of England. During the Cromwellian struggle Wales was strongly Royalist, and at a later period Jacobite in sympathy. The most striking features of its subsequent history have been the rise of Nonconformity and its recent intellectual awakening.

See Prof. Rhys's Celtic Britain; Woodward's History of Wales for the mediæval history; a sketch by Prof. Lloyd in the Eisteddfod Transactions, 1884 (Liverpool: I. Foulkes), of which we have made free use; Mr Tout's article on Wales in the Dictionary of English History; the Marquis of Bute's Presidential Address at Rhyll Eisteddfod, 1892; Henry Owen's Gerald the Welshman (London: Cymmrodorion Society); Rees's Nonconformity in Wales; and also the references in J. R. Green's works; Hubert Lewis's Ancient Welsh Laws; Stephens' Literature of the Kymry; John E. Southall's Wales and her Language; E. J. Newall, A History of the Welsh Church (1895). For Welsh topography may be consulted works by Pennant (ed. by Rhys, 1883), Borrow (1862), and Wirt Sykes (South Wales, 1882). See also EISTEDDFOD, MADOC, REBECCA RIOTS.

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.—For the relations of the various Celtic tongues, see CELTS. Of the surviving Celtic languages, Welsh shows by far the most vigorous signs of life. It is spoken generally throughout Wales and Monmouthshire, and by thousands of Welshmen in the large towns of England, and in America and the colonies; and as it is written phonetically, there are very few of its speakers who cannot also read it. About twenty weekly newspapers are published entirely in Welsh, as well as fifteen or twenty monthly magazines, two bi-monthly reviews, and one quarterly. Two Welsh weekly papers and several monthlies appear in America. Abstracts of acts of parliament and other parliamentary papers having reference to Wales are regularly published in Welsh by government, and of late whole acts have been translated and published, including the Local Government Act, 1888. Welsh is taught in Oxford and at the university colleges of Wales; and now, after a long trial of the policy of ignoring it, it is being introduced into Welsh elementary schools.

The Welsh alphabet consists of twenty-seven letters—a, b, c, ch, d, dd, e, f, ff, g, ng, h, i, l, ll, m, n, o, p, ph, r, s, t, th, u, w, y. The consonants b, d, h, l, m, n, p, ph, s, t, th are pronounced as in English; c and g are always hard; r is trilled; ch is the German ch in nacht; dd is the soft th in breathe; f is the English v, ff the English f; ng is pronounced as in sing; ll bears the same relation to l that hard th does to soft th; a, e, i, o are pronounced as in Italian; w is the w in wind, or the oo in book; u is a peculiar sound approaching the English e in pretty; y has a sound approaching i in fir, except in the final syllable and in monosyllables, where it is pronounced as the Welsh u.

Zeuss, in his Grammatica Celtica, published in 1853, first proved that the Celtic group of languages belongs to the great Aryan or Indo-European family; and from that time it has become increasingly evident that it is closely connected with the Italian group. An idea of the relation between them may best be formed by a comparison with the Latin declensions of the Proto-Celtic declensions as restored by Dr Whitley Stokes. It is certain that when Caesar landed in Britain the Brythonic language was highly inflected; and probably the Goidelic differed but little from it.

The importance of Welsh to the Celtic philologist is due to the fact that in the Roman period it borrowed a very considerable number of words from the Latin. Knowing the forms of these words at that period, and in mediæval and modern Welsh, we are able to deduce from them the laws of phonetic change, by which the Brythonic of that period has been transformed into modern Welsh. So that, given a pure Welsh word in its modern form, it is generally possible with some degree of confidence to restore it into the form which it had in old Brythonic.

The oldest forms of Welsh are preserved in inscriptions written in Roman characters and in Ogam (q.v.). The inscriptions, however, contain little beyond a few proper names. A number of glosses and some scraps of writing are preserved in manuscripts of the 9th century; and in these the final syllable of the Roman period has completely disappeared, but vowel-flanked consonants are still written hard. The oldest connected piece of Welsh writing of any length still existing is the Black Book of Carmarthen, a manuscript of the end of the 12th century. But several poems, whose composition must be referred to a much earlier date, are found in manuscripts of the 13th and 14th centuries. Phonetically the language of these poems is that of the date of the manuscripts; but this is only what is to be expected, for in existing manuscripts it is seen that everything is modernised at every successive transcription.

The most important of these ancient works is the Gododin of Aneurin, a poem of considerable literary merit, commemorative of the heroes who fell at the battle of Cattraeth, and written in the 6th century, probably not long after the date of that battle. It is preserved in a manuscript of the later part of the 13th century, and is about 1000 lines in length. Next in importance perhaps are the works of Llywarch Hên, who wrote The Hall of Cynddylan, and an elegy on Urien, one of the heroes of Cattraeth. The other poets of that period are Taliesin and Myrddin (Merlin, q.v.); but most of the poems attributed to these are spurious.

This early period of literary activity was followed by a long period of decline. But with the 12th century there came a great literary revival. The Mabinogion and the romances of Arthur, which had long hovered formlessly in the air as folklore, now crystallised and took literary shape. 'It was in the year 1145,' writes Mr Alfred Nutt (Studies in the Legend of the Holy Grail, p. 229), 'that Geoffrey of Monmouth first made the legendary history of Britain accessible to the lettered class of England and Continent. . . . Twenty years had not passed before the British heroes were household names throughout Europe, and by the close of the century nearly every existing literature had assimilated and reproduced the story of Arthur and his Knights.' In England the early English literature was forgotten, and exercised practically no influence on the English literature of the middle ages, which derived its inspiration and the greater part of its materials from the Arthurian sagas (The Arthurian Legend, by Prof. Rhys, p. 289).

The poetry of this period of revival is chiefly heroic. In the early part of the 12th century Meilir composed his ode in memory of Gruffudd ap Cynan; then came Gwalchmai, one of whose odes has been done into English verse by Gray; and then, about the end of the century, Cynddelw, the richness of whose vocabulary makes him difficult to understand now, on account of the number of words that have become obsolete. We must not omit to mention Llywarch ap Llywelyn, the bard of Llywelyn the Great, and Gruffudd ap Maredudd, whose lament on the death of Gwenhwyvar of Anglesey is one of the finest things of its kind in the language. This period, which may be called the period of the Princes, came to an end with the death in 1282 of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, the last Prince of Wales.

In the early years of the 14th century a new period was ushered in by Rhys Goch ap Rhiccert, who wrote a number of sweetly musical love-songs. He was immediately followed by Davydd ap Gwilym, and the bards of the three Eisteddfods called those of the renaissance ('y tair eisteddfod ddadenni'). In the poetry of the new revival love takes the place occupied by war in the older poetry; and the 'cywydd' metre of seven syllables takes the place of the longer heroic metre. Dafydd ap Gwilym, the greatest poet of this period, which has been called the golden age of Welsh literature, was born of noble parents in 1300. A welcome guest at every mansion in Wales, he travelled much throughout the length and breadth of the land. He met Morfudd, the daughter of Madawg Lawgam, at Newborough in Anglesey; and she became his Laura, to whom he inscribed seven score and seven songs. As a poet of nature he has perhaps no equal in English literature; he is certainly not approached by any one before Wordsworth. He knows every bird and every flower, and they all reveal to him their secrets. His descriptions of natural objects are not the mere conventional formulas of Chaucer, but the spontaneous expression of a profound first-hand knowledge of the things themselves. He died in 1368. Iolo Goch, one of the younger bards of the 'tair eisteddfod,' lived to write fiery odes to Owen Glendower. In 1451 Dafydd ab Edmwnd rearranged the metres, and perfected the rules of alliterative versification; and from that time Welsh poetry became artificial and mechanically correct, and eulogy and elegy took the place of love. Lewis Glyŵn Cothi wrote his historical odes from 1440-1480; he was followed by Tudur Aled, who died about 1530; and William Llŷn, who flourished about 1550. The last poet of this period may be said to be Edmwnd Pryss, who in the later half of the 16th century composed a metric version of the Psalms, which is still used in the churches and chapels of Wales.

During the golden age of Welsh poetry no prose was written that deserves mention. A new period dawns with the publication of the New Testament in 1567. The translator, William Salesbury, had a craze for restoring every Latin word into its original form; so that his Testament was unintelligible to the mass of the people. But the whole Bible, translated into good, vigorous Welsh by Dr W. Morgan, was published in 1588. In those years many grammars and dictionaries were published; and in 1620 a new and much improved edition of the Bible was issued, and is, with few alterations, the Bible now in use. In 1630 Dr J. Davies published his Welsh-Latin dictionary, which remained the standard work for more than 150 years. During the 17th century one poet, Hugh Morris, is perhaps worthy of mention. The two most important prose writers were Morgan Llwyd o Wynedd, who wrote about the middle of the century eight books in defence of the Puritans; and Charles Edwards, who published in 1671 an excellent 'History of the Faith.' With these exceptions the Welsh literature of this century consisted chiefly of poor translations of English second-rate theological books.

But the 18th century witnessed a third revival of Welsh literature. Lewis Morris, born in 1702, became a proficient in most of the natural sciences then known, a skilled mathematician, and mineralogist. He devoted his leisure hours to the study of Welsh antiquities and literature. He instructed Goronwy Owen and other young bards in the rules of Welsh poetry, and by his direction and guidance brought about the last revival of Welsh literature. Goronwy Owen, the greatest bard of this period, was born of poor parents in 1722, was educated at the Bangor grammar-school and Jesus College, Oxford, and failed to get a curacy in Wales. Goronwy's poetry is the lament of an exile. His odes to his native Anglesey are perhaps the finest things written in Welsh.

About this time a religious movement, known afterwards as the Welsh Methodist revival, took place through the instrumentality of a few earnest clergymen. Griffith Jones of Llanddowr founded 3000 schools in all parts of the country to teach the people to read the Bible in the only language they could understand. The work of these schools has since been carried on by the Sunday-schools. Modern Welsh literature is the joint product of the literary and religious movements of the 18th century. The literary movement gave it purity of language; the religious movement gave it most of its subjects, and taught the people to read.

The bards of the 19th century are exceedingly numerous; the best are Robert ap Gwilym Ddu, Dewi Wyn, Caledfryn, Elen Fardd, Ieuau Glan Geirionnyd, Emrys, Nicander, Islwyn, and Ceiriog. The prose of this century is mostly theological; of purely literary works we may mention the historical works of the Rev. P. Price, of Gweirydd ap Rhys, and of Mendwy Môn, the essays of the brothers Roberts of Llanbryn-mair, the works of Dr William Rees, the literary essays of Dr L. Edwards, and the novels of Mr Daniel Owen.

The early grammars and the dictionary of Dr Davies have been mentioned. In 1707 Edward Lhuyd of Jesus College published his Archæologia Britannica, which Dr Schrader calls 'an extremely remarkable work for its time.' It contains grammars and comparative dictionaries of the Celtic dialects; even sounds are compared and phonetic laws deduced; and it has been said of Lhuyd that he lived 150 years before his time. But the native philologists did not in the least understand him; and in 1803 W. Owen, afterwards Dr W. O. Pugh, published his dictionary, based philologically upon the theory that every Welsh word was an agglutination of monosyllabic roots invented by the Druids. Owen's method is still the popular one in Wales. Prichard (q.v.), in The Eastern Origin of the Celtic Nations (1831), first attempted to apply to the Celtic languages the canons of comparative philology; but Zeuss (q.v.), in his Grammatica Celtica (1853), was the first to succeed in this. After Zeuss many names might be mentioned; but perhaps Prof. Rhys (q.v.) has done more, in a direct way, for Welsh philology and grammar than any other scholar.

One of the best results of the last revival was the interest which it awoke in Welshmen in their old literature. In the first years of the 19th century the Myvyrian Archaeology, under the editorship of Owen Jones, William Owen, and Edward Williams, was published at Owen Jones's expense. It contained the works of the early bards and historical and other works of the middle ages. A second edition was issued by Mr Gee of Denbigh in 1870. In 1838 Lady Guest published the Mabinogion, with translations. Subsequently the Welsh MSS. Society was formed, and the Liber Landavensis, the Lives of the Saints, the Iolo MSS., and other ancient documents were published by it. In 1868 Mr W. F. Skene published his Four Ancient Books of Wales, containing the Book of Aneurin, the Book of Taliesin, the Black Book of Carmarthen, and the poetry of the Red Book of Hergest (q.v.), with translations and notes. In 1887 the first volume was published of the Welsh Texts, under the editorship of Prof. Rhys and Mr Gwenvryn Evans. It consists of a diplomatic reproduction of the Mabinogion from the Red Book of Hergest. A fac-simile of the Black Book of Carmarthen, and the Bruts from the Red Book have since been issued.

PRINCE OF WALES is the title borne by the eldest son of the sovereign of England. After the fall of the last native princes of Wales, Llewelyn in 1282 and David in 1283, Wales came fully under the dominion of Edward I., who in 1284 is fabled to have presented the Welsh with a prince in his infant son, Edward, really born at Carnarvon Castle. Edward, by the death of his elder brother four months later, became heir-apparent; but it was not till 1301 that he was created Prince of Wales. Edward III. in 1343 invested his son Edward the Black Prince with the principality, and from that time the title of Prince of Wales has been borne by the eldest son of the reigning king. Till the time of Charles II. the Welsh connection was oddly maintained by the arrangement that the Prince of Wales always had a Welsh wet-nurse. The title is not inherited, and has usually been bestowed by patent and investiture, though in a few instances the heir to the throne has become Prince of Wales simply by being so declared. The eldest son of the sovereign is by inheritance Duke of Cornwall, a title first conferred in 1337 on Edward the Black Prince. The title of Earl of Chester, borne by Edward III. before his accession to the throne, has since been given along with the principality of Wales. On the death of a Prince of Wales in his father's lifetime the title has been conferred on the sovereign's grandson, or next younger son, being heir-apparent, though not upon Charles I. till four years after the death of Prince Henry. As heir of the crown of Scotland the eldest son of the sovereign is Great

Steward of Scotland, Duke of Rothesay, Earl of Carrick, Baron of Renfrew, and Lord of the Isles. The Prince of Wales was created Earl of Dublin in 1849, a title that descended with the other hereditary honours to his eldest (surviving) son, till 1901 known as Duke of York. George Frederick Ernest Albert, second son of Albert Edward, Prince of Wales (see EDWARD VII.), was born 3d June 1865, was created Duke of York in 1892, and the same year by the death of his elder brother, the Duke of Clarence, became his father's heir. He married in 1893 the Princess Victoria Mary of Teck, and when his father became king had three sons and a daughter.

The revenues of the Duchy of Cornwall were in 1901 nearly £120,000; of this more than half goes to the Prince of Wales. The annuities of the Prince (from 1863 to 1901, £40,000) and Princess of Wales (in 1901, £10,000) are charged on the Consolidated Fund. The Prince of Wales has a separate household. The statute of treasons, 25 Edw. III., makes it treason to compass the death of the Prince of Wales or violate the chastity of his consort. By a statute of the Order of the Garter, of date 1805, the Prince of Wales as soon as he receives that title becomes a Knight of the Garter. The arms of the Prince of Wales are those of the sovereign, differentiated by a label of three points argent, as described in the article HERALDRY, Vol. V. page 666. The supporters and crest are the same as those of royalty. For the crown, see CORONET. The Prince of Wales has further a distinguishing badge, composed of a plume of three white ostrich feathers, encircled by an ancient coronet of a Prince of Wales, and accompanied by the motto 'Ich Dien' ('I serve'). See BADGE, ICH DIEN, ALBERT-EDWARD, REGENT, SANDRINGHAM.