Carnot, LAZARE NICOLAS MARGUERITE, the ‘organiser of victory’ during the early wars of the French Revolution, was born at Nolay, Burgundy, in 1753. He entered the army as engineer. In 1791 he became a member of the Legislative Assembly, and in the Convention voted for the death of Louis XVI. During a mission to the army of the north, he took temporary command and gained the victory of Wattignies. On his return he was elected into the Committee of Public Safety and entrusted with the organisation of the armies of the Revolution, in that task displaying marvellous energy and ability. In a short time he raised fourteen armies, and drew up a plan of operations, by which the forces of the European reaction were repelled from the frontier. Though he endeavoured to restrict the power of Robespierre, he was accused, with others, after the Reign of Terror; but the charge was dismissed. Carnot was a member of the Directory at its institution in 1795, but in 1797, having opposed the extreme measures of Barras, his colleague, he was sentenced to deportation as a suspected royalist. He escaped into Germany, where he wrote his defence, which conducted to the overthrow of his colleagues in 1799. The 18th Brumaire brought him back to Paris, where he was made Minister of War, 1800; and by his energy, skill, and fertility of administrative resource, helped to achieve the brilliant results of the Italian and Rhenish campaigns. He retired, however, from his office when he understood the ambitious plans of the emperor, but hastened, when he witnessed the reverses of the empire, to offer his services to Napoleon, who gave him the command of Antwerp in 1814, which he heroically defended. During the Hundred Days he held office as Minister of the Interior; and after the second restoration retired first to Warsaw, and next to Magdeburg, where he died in 1823. Of his numerous writings on mathematics, military tactics, &c., the best is Réflexions sur la Métaphysique du Calcul Infinitésimal (1797).
See his Mémoires (2 vols. 1861-64), and the Lives of him by Arago (1850) and Picard (1885).—His son, NICOLAS LEONARD SADI, founder of the science of thermo-dynamics, was born at Paris, 1st June 1796; studied at the Polytechnic, served in the engineers, and became captain; but died of cholera, 24th August 1832. His principal work is the Réflexions sur la Puissance du Feu (1824), (see THERMO-DYNAMICS).—Another son, LAZARE HIPPOLYTE CARNOT, born at St Omer, 6th April 1801, one of the leaders of the French democracy, was in early life a disciple of St Simon, but, like others, left that school on account of the lax morals advocated by Enfantin—protesting against 'the organisation of adultery'—and devoted himself to the inculcation of a more orthodox and virtuous socialism in various periodicals. After the February Revolution (1848) he was appointed Minister of Public Instruction, but soon resigned. In 1863 he entered the Corps Législatif, and the National Assembly in 1871. He was elected a senator for life in 1875, and died 16th March 1888. He wrote an Exposé of St Simonianism and Mémoires of Henri Gregoire and of Barrère.—MARIE FRANÇOIS SADI CARNOT, President of the French Republic, was born at Limoges, 11th August 1837, the eldest son of the last named. He studied at the École Polytechnique, and was by profession a civil engineer. In 1871 he was chosen to the National Assembly, and was finance minister in 1879, as also in 1887. Distinguished for integrity and moderation, he was, in 1887, chosen President of the Republic; but was assassinated at Lyons by an anarchist, on the 24th June 1894.