Easter

Easter (Ger. ostern, Fr. plâques, Scot. pasch, from Gr. pascha, 'the passover'), the festival of the resurrection of Jesus Christ, derives probably its name from Eastre, a Saxon goddess, whose festival was annually kept about the same time as Easter. In the ancient church, the celebration of Easter lasted an octave (eight days). After the 11th century, however, it was limited to three, and in later times, generally to two days. It was formerly the favourite time for performing the rite of baptism. The courts of justice were closed, and alms dispensed to the poor and needy, who were even feasted in the churches—a custom which led to much disorder. Slaves also received their freedom at that season; and as the austerities of Lent were over, the people gave themselves up to enjoyment; hence the day was called the 'Sunday of joy' (Dominica gaudii). In the East it is still known as the 'Bright Day,' and in Bohemia it is designated the 'Great Night.' To the popular sports and dances were added farcical exhibitions, in which even the clergy joined in some places, reciting from the pulpits stories and legends, with a view to stir the hearers to laughter (risus paschalis). Against this indecency the Reformers of the 16th century loudly and successfully raised their voices. During the whole week before Easter—i.e. in the interval between Palm Sunday and the beginning of the Easter festival—daily services were held (see HOLY WEEK, and GOOD FRIDAY).

On Easter Day, the people saluted each other with the Easter kiss, and the exclamation Surrexit ('He is risen'); to which the reply was Vere surrexit ('He is risen indeed')—a custom still retained in the Greek Church. Thus, in Russia, at the time of salutation, red eggs are exchanged, and cage-birds are let loose, as emblematical of that liberty which is consecrated by the Easter solemnities. The chief solemnity has always consisted of the celebration of the Lord's Supper; and Easter is the one time in the year at which, by the Fourth Lateran Council, Roman Catholics must communicate.

The proper time for the celebration of Easter has occasioned no little controversy. In the 2d century a dispute arose on this point between the Eastern and Western Churches. The great mass of the Eastern Christians celebrated Easter on the 14th day of the first Jewish month or moon, considering it to be equivalent to the Jewish Passover. The Western churches kept it on the Sunday after the 14th day, holding that it was the commemoration of the resurrection of Jesus. The Council of

Nice (325 A.D.) decided in favour of the Western usage, branding the Eastern usage with the name of the 'quartodeciman' heresy. This, however, only settled the point that Easter was to be held, not upon a certain day of the month or moon, but on a Sunday. The proper astronomical cycle for calculating the occurrence of the Easter moon was not determined by this council. It appears, however, that the Metonic Cycle (q.v.) was already in use in the West for this purpose; though great discrepancies obtained as late as 541; and the British churches clung closely to an old cycle of eighty-four years, originally adopted from the Roman Church. The controversy as to the celebration of Easter in England was practically authoritatively settled by the adoption of the Roman usage at the Council of Whitby in 664, Wilfrid being the spokesman of the victorious party, Colman the defender of the traditional Celtic usage. It was on the metonic cycle that the Gregorian Calendar, introduced in 1582, was arranged. The method on which this calendar is constructed is too complex for description here. An elaborate account of the whole matter was published by Professor De Morgan in the Company to the British Almanac in 1845. The time of Easter, being the most ancient and important of all the movable feasts of the Christian church, determines all the rest. It was debated, at the time of the introduction of the Gregorian Calendar, whether Easter should continue to be movable, or whether a fixed Sunday, after the 21st of March, should not be adopted. It was deference to ancient custom that led the ecclesiastical authorities to adhere to the method of determination by the moon. It must be remembered, however, that it is not the actual moon in the heavens, nor even the mean moon of astronomers, that regulates the time of Easter, but an altogether imaginary moon, whose periods are so contrived that the new (calendar) moon always follows the real new moon (sometimes by two, or even three days). The effect of this is, that the 14th of the calendar moon—which had, from the times of Moses, been considered 'full moon' for ecclesiastical purposes—falls generally on the 15th or 16th of the real moon, and thus after the real full moon, which is generally on the 14th or 15th day. With this explanation, then, of what is meant by 'full moon'—viz. that it is the 14th day of the calendar moon—the rule is, that Easter Day is always the first Sunday after the paschal full moon—i.e. the full moon which happens upon or next after the 21st of March (the beginning of the ecclesiastical year); and if the full moon happens upon a Sunday, Easter Day is the Sunday after. For any given year, the day on which the paschal full moon falls, and then Easter Day, are found by the following table and rule:

First ascertain the Dominical Letter (q.v.)— taking the second, where there are two—and the Golden Number (see EPACT); look for the golden number in the third column of the table, and opposite to it stands the day of the full moon; then look for the dominical letter, next after the day of full moon, and the day standing opposite the dominical letter is Easter Day. It sometimes happens that Easter Day, as thus determined, is different from what it would be if by 'full moon' were understood the astronomical full moon. Thus, in 1818 Easter Day, by the calendar, fell, and was celebrated on the 22d of March, the earliest possible day, although the full moon was on that day; and in 1845 it again fell on the day of the actual full moon (the 23d March).

One object in arranging the calendar moon was that Easter might never fall on the same day as the Jewish Passover. They did occur together, however, in 1805 on the 14th of April; and in 1825 on the 3d April; and will do so again in 1903 on the 12th April; in 1923 on the 1st April; in 1927 on the 17th April; and in 1981 on the 19th April. The Jewish festival usually occurs in Passion-week, and never before the 26th of March or after the 25th of April (new style). On the other hand, the Christian festival is never before the 22d of March, or after the 25th of April. In 1761 and 1818 Easter fell on the 22d of March; but neither in this nor the following century will such be the case again. In 1913 it will fall on the 23d of March, as it did in 1845 and 1856. The latest Easters in the 19th and the 20th century occur in 1886 and 1943 on the 25th of April. In 1848 Easter fell on the 23d of April; and in 1859, on the 24th of April.

Popular Observances.—Many of the popular observances connected with Easter are clearly of pagan origin, and traceable to the feast of the Saxon deity 'Eastre;' the Anglo-Saxon name of April having been Eáster-mónath, which still survives in the German Ostermonath. The worship of this deity, introduced into England by the Saxons, continued to be celebrated in many parts in the north of Germany down to the beginning of the 19th century by the kindling of bonfires and numerous other rites (see BELTANE). Like the May observances of England, it was especially a festival of joy. With her usual policy, the church endeavoured to give a Christian significance to such of the rites as could not be rooted out; and in this case the conversion was particularly easy. Joy at the rising of the natural sun, and at the awakening of nature from the death of winter, became joy at the rising of the Sun of Righteousness—at the resurrection of Christ from the grave. The bonfires can be traced in the great 'pascal tapers,' or 'Easter candles,' sometimes weighing 300 lb., with which the churches were lighted on Easter Eve. In the ancient church disbursements of St Mary-at-Hill, in the city of London, there is even an entry 'for a quarter of coles for the hallowed fire on Easter Eve, 6d.'

The Easter offerings or dues are 'customary sums' which from time immemorial have been paid, and are recoverable as small tithes before the justices of the peace.

One of the most popular features of Easter was the Pasch or Easter egg, an old emblem of the resurrection; although the egg, as symbolical of renewed life, may be traced back to a very primitive period. De Gebelin has connected it with the ancient Egyptians, Persians, Greeks, and Romans; and Schwartz says it was customary among the Parsees to distribute red eggs at their spring festival. In Germany, instead of the Easter egg, is presented an emblematical print, in which three hens are holding a basket wherein are three eggs; whereas in Vienna the Easter egg is composed of silver, mother-of-pearl, or bronze, and filled with knick-knacks of some kind. Formerly in this country the Easter egg was solemnly blessed by the priest, and being elaborately coloured, was often kept as an amulet. Most of the old customs and superstitions associated with the Easter festival have fallen into disuse, but as a holiday season its popularity is not likely to decrease. Easter cards are greetings like Christmas Cards (q.v.). For the Easter term, see TERM.