Mexico

Mexico, the most southerly country of North America, is a federal republic, embracing twenty-seven states, a federal district, and two territories. It extends between the United States and Guatemala, with an extreme length of nearly 2000 miles; its breadth varies between 1000 and (in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec) 130 miles. It has a coast-line of almost 6000 miles, but with scarcely a safe harbour beyond the noble haven of Acapulco; on the Atlantic side, with its sandbanks and lagoons, there are only open roadsteads, or river-mouths closed to ocean vessels by bars and shallows; harbour-works, however, were in active construction at Vera Cruz and Tampico in 1890. From the south-eastern and north-western extremities of the republic there extend the peninsulas of Yucatan and Lower California, enclosing the Gulfs of Campeche and California respectively. The islands of Mexico are few and of no importance.

In area Mexico almost equals Great Britain and Ireland, France, Germany, and Austria-Hungary together. The figures given in the following table are official, but in most cases they can be accepted only as approximate; large sections of Michoacán and Guerrero, and also of Sonora, have not yet been explored; and there are still many Indians that have never even come in contact with the white man. Of the entire population the whites are estimated to form 19 per cent., the Indians 38, and the half-castes (mestizos) 43 per cent. The total population in 1895 was 12,578,861.

There are separate articles in this work on most of the states and chief towns.

Surface.—For the most part Mexico consists of an immense tableland, which commences in the United States as far north as Colorado, and gradually rises to over 8100 feet at Marquez (the highest point touched by the railway), 76 miles N. by W. of Mexico city; and a mean elevation nearly as great is maintained in all the south central plateau: at El Paso, on the northern frontier, the elevation is only 3717 feet. The prevailing formations are metamorphic, but partly overlaid by igneous rocks of every geologic epoch, rich in metalliferous ores. In the highest ranges granites and other igneous rocks prevail, with deposits of sulphur and pumice, and other recent volcanic discharges. In the north chalk and sandstones become prevalent. The escarpments of this plateau form most of the so-called Cordilleras; Humboldt's theory of a continuous chain extending from Patagonia to Alaska has now been abandoned. The most important range is the Sierra Madre (over 10,000 feet, and extending from Tehuantepec into the United States); parallel with this run the sierras of the east coast and of Lower California. The surface of the country is also much broken up by short cross-ridges and detached peaks, the principal being the Cordillera de Anahuac (q.v.), culminating in Nevado de Toluca (19,454 feet), the highest point on the North American continent, and Popocatepetl (17,523). The Pico de Orizaba, east of Popocatepetl, is 18,205 feet high. Most of the Mexican volcanoes are extinct or quiescent, and violent earthquakes are of rare occurrence. No disturbance so remarkable has occurred since the upheaval of Jorullo (q.v.) in 1759. On the Atlantic side the plateau descends abruptly to the narrow strip (about 60 miles) of gently sloping coast-land; towards the Pacific, where the coast-lands vary in width from 40 to 70 miles, the descent is more gradual. Of the present lakes the only one of great size is Chapala (q.v.), which is traversed by the Rio Grande de Santiago; but considerable bodies of water collect in depressions in the uplands during the heavy rains, and even flood the surrounding country for a time. The rivers of Mexico are of little use for navigation. South of the Rio Grande del Norte, on the Texan frontier, they are mostly impetuous mountain-torrents, or flow through rocky gorges (barrancas), sometimes 1000 feet deep. Only in the narrow strips between the plateau and the coast are they available as channels of trade and communication; and in this respect perhaps Arabia alone is less favoured than Mexico.

Climate and Agriculture.—In the plateau region, or tierras templadas, the climate is almost that of perpetual spring, and the atmosphere remarkably free from moisture. It is to this peculiar dryness that the city of Mexico, the soil of which has been soaked with the filth of centuries and never properly drained, owes its immunity from pestilence; but, on the other hand, throughout the plateau agriculture is dependent on the use and control of water for irrigation purposes, and an immense desert tract extends between Chihuahua and Zacatecas. Wood in all this upland region is scarce and dear, though there are valuable forests in the extreme north and south. On the coast-lands wood and water are abundant, and the soil fertile, but the climate is such that white men cannot work as labourers there. Yet Mexico contains as fine agricultural land as any in the world, and in most parts two crops a year are grown; while already a score of agricultural colonies, drawn from various nationalities, have been established in the country. Northern Mexico is the original home of the 'cattle-range' business, and there vast herds of horses, cattle, and sheep form the principal wealth of the people. The coast-belt and the terraces up to 3000 feet constitute the tierras ealientes, where the temperature ranges from 60° to 110° F., and, in the south at least, the magnificent tropical vegetation and the yellow fever and vómito reign with equal vigour. Two or three hours by the Vera Cruz Railway carries the traveller from Esperanza, at the very edge of the plateau, down into the heart of the tropics. The cold lands, or tierras frias, embrace all the country above about 8000 feet, including the few highest peaks covered, with perpetual snow. South of about 28° N. there are only the wet and the dry season, the former from June to October. Farther north there are four seasons; but in the highest zone the rainfall is very scanty, and northern Mexico and the Californian peninsula especially are exposed to seasons of drought. The vegetation of Mexico has the same wide range as the climate. In the lowlands dye-woods and valuable timbers abound in the virgin forests, as well as medicinal plants, india-rubber, palms, &c.; and oranges and bananas, many varieties of cactus, olives, sugar, coffee, cocoa, rice, indigo, cotton, and tobacco, besides the omnipresent maize, all thrive. Many of these products, including the palms, oranges, cacti, olives, tobacco, and of course the maize, grow as readily over a great part of the temperate zone, where the characteristic vegetation embraces pines, evergreen oaks, the magney or Agave americana (q.v.), and the henequen (Agave sisilana, see FIBROUS SUBSTANCES). The last two are nearly as frequent also in the tierras frias. The vine flourishes in some districts, especially near El Paso, Durango, and Parras in Coahuila, where a good wine is made; and mulberry plants have been imported from Europe to develop the silk industry. In Lower California a good deal of Archil (q.v.) is collected, and chicle gum is extracted and prepared in the forests along the coast. But agriculture in Mexico is very poorly developed. Primitive methods are followed by the people generally, and the American plough has only in a few localities displaced the crooked stick, sometimes shod with iron, and lashed by raw-hide thongs to the oxens' horns. There is, however, some agricultural machinery in use on the larger haciendas, or great landed estates. To their absentee owners such estates, in spite of the expense of irrigation and the shiftless methods in use, are said to return large incomes; but the difficulty and cost of transport are so great that in many parts of Mexico no more corn is grown than suffices to meet the wants of the immediate neighbourhood. Of maize, 128,222,000 bushels are raised in an average year. The other principal crops are wheat, 11,114,000 bushels; beans, 7,547,000 bushels; barley, 5,787,000 bushels. The value of the cotton crop averages £1,645,000, of sugar-cane £1,323,000, of hemp and coffee above a third as much, and of tobacco a fourth. In 1889 henequen was exported from Yucatan to the value of over a million sterling.

Minerals.—Mexico is rich in minerals, many of which have been worked from a very early date. Silver-mining, especially, has been an important industry ever since the conquest, and a considerable number of the mines are still worked at a profit. Gold, though to a greatly less value, is also produced. The coinage records, which date from 1537, and may be taken as substantially accurate, show the production of the precious metals, from that year to 1884, to have been: gold, 114,384,204 dols.; silver, 3,105,979,022 dols.—total, 3,220,363,226 dols. Copper is largely mined in some sections, being found in a pure state in Chiapas and Guanajuato, and elsewhere associated with gold. Other important minerals are iron, including enormous masses of meteoric iron ore, and the mountain a mile from Durango, the Cerro de Mercado, a solid mass of magnetic iron ore; lead, found associated with silver; and sulphur, zinc, quicksilver, platinum, cinnabar, asphalt and petroleum, besides salt, marble, alabaster, gypsum, and rock-salt in great quantities. There are also said to be large deposits of coal, some of excellent quality, in various localities; but as yet little of it has been mined. Throughout Mexico over 100,000 workmen are employed in the various mining enterprises—above 350 in number, and largely supported by American and British capital. Formerly the Mexican ores, especially argentiferous lead, were sent for smelting to the United States; but as the American tariff became prohibitive, establishments were set up on Mexican soil, to which in 1890 some American foundries and works also were transferred.

Manufactures and Trade.—In all Mexico the number of factories using steam power does not greatly exceed one hundred. Very little labour-saving machinery of any kind has been introduced, owing partly to the scarcity of fuel and water, and partly to the difficulty of repairing expensive and complicated machinery, usually—on the haciendas at any rate—broken on purpose by the peons, who are obstinately opposed to any change. In 1888 there were 98 cotton and 16 woollen factories in Mexico, besides 7 paper-mills and 2 potteries employing steam. Flour and unrefined sugar are also prepared, and a large sugar refinery was erected at Linares in 1890; while there are smaller special manufactures, such as candles, glass, porcelain; and the extraction of henequen fibre, too, is an important industry. Bounties are offered by some states for the establishment of factories within their bounds. But the handicraft production of such articles as pottery, saddles, sandals, many coarser textiles, the national hat, the sombrero, and the national drinks, pulque, mescal, and tequila, all from the various plants of the maguey family, is much more considerable. The great bulk of the Mexican exports is always formed by the precious metals—coin, bullion, and ores; yet the amount of agricultural products and other merchandise has greatly increased since the construction of railways. Of these in 1860 there were none; in 1880 there were 655 miles, in 1890 over 5500 miles open for traffic. The rapid construction of these lines, most of which are in English hands, has saddled the country with heavy responsibilities; the subventions payable to the several companies in the year 1890 amounted to £697,000—about one-seventh of the government's total income—and the sum increases yearly, in accordance with agreements entered into with the companies. Moreover, the spread of the railways has been made an excuse for the almost utter neglect of the roads, which throughout Mexico were bad enough before. The fine highways constructed by the Spaniards were allowed to fall into destruction during the long civil wars, and their present deplorable condition makes them rather a hindrance than a help in the development of the country. A still more serious obstacle to internal commerce is the crushing system of interstate customs—the alcabalas—a heritage from the days of Spanish rule; they were abolished by a decree of 1886, but in 1890 the British minister reported that they still existed under various names in the territories and federal district, and in most of the states. Under the excise system, moreover, nearly every possible product, every branch of industry, every social function, even, is taxed; and a swarm of petty officials in every city, town, and hamlet see that nothing escapes its tax, from a bag of seaweed or shavings to a funeral or a fandango. In 1890 the fiscal gendarmeria alone cost four-fifths as much as the foreign office and the judicial power together. Still, in spite of these impediments, the trade of Mexico within recent years has steadily increased. During the period 1890–95 the exports advanced from 63,276,400 to 90,854,950 dols., and the imports varied from 30,000,000 to 45,000,000 dols. (= 26d.). Of the exports in 1895 the precious metals represented 53,000,000 dols.; henequen, coffee, hides, woods, tobacco, and vanilla came next. Nearly two-thirds of the total trade is with the United States, and one-fourth with Great Britain; France follows at some distance, and Germany yet further behind. Home manufactures and the distribution of merchandise are largely in the hands of foreigners. Of late years a large number of French merchants have settled in Mexico, and have nearly everywhere superseded the Germans, who controlled most of the trade from 1850 to 1870. In 1888 there were 12,300 French in the republic, and only 800 Germans, and the former had practically monopolised the dry-goods business of the country, and were pressing their rivals closely in other departments, such as hardware, in which the Germans had secured the lead. Great Britain imports from Mexico mainly mahogany, logwood, and silver ore, and exports thither cottons, woollens, and linens, iron, machinery, and coal; in 1885–89 the value of the former decreased steadily from £724,847 to £465,994, while that of the latter increased from £866,671 to £1,621,106.

Government, Finances, &c.—The Mexican constitution is closely modelled upon that of the United States. The president, who is assisted by six secretaries of state, is elected for four years, and can be re-elected for a second term; the senators (two for each state) and representatives (one for every 40,000 inhabitants) receive a salary of 3000 dols. a year; the judicial system occupies the same position as that of the United States; and the several states have elective governors and legislatures. It must be added, however, that neither government nor opposition is conducted on any principle: the government is a personal, and often a tyrannical one; and the opposition also is personal—it rises and falls with its leader, and in the past has found its favourite and safest expression in revolution, which either lifts the pretender into power or leaves him before a firing-party. Either event dissolves the opposition, for no principle has been involved. A strong government, in these circumstances, is most necessary in Mexico, and the cost of the army (27,000 men) swallows up one-third of the annual receipts. As for the navy, it consists of some revenue cutters, a steam-tug, and a training ship (built 1890), and costs £75,000 a year. The receipts of the Mexican government fell in 1890-95 from 67,366,753 dollars to 43,945,700 dollars: about five-eighths of this is derived from customs. Within the same period the expenditure was reduced in an almost corresponding degree. Both in the republic and abroad, however, it is recognised that the government is straining every nerve to meet its obligations, and the general confidence has increased of late years; while the individual states, as a whole, succeed in keeping their expenditure within their income. The interest on the national debt has been punctually paid since 1886, in which year an arrangement was come to between the Mexican government and the English bondholders, under which the various debts were converted and redeemed (in 1889) at 40 per cent. The entire foreign debt of Mexico was in 1890 returned at £10,500,000. In the same year banking facilities were greatly extended, charters being granted for banks of issue and others in various towns; whereas previously banking had been confined almost entirely to two large banks at the capital, and their branches. In 1890 there were 32,437 miles of telegraphs and 4349 of telephones in operation in the republic.

Social Aspects.—Nearly half of the population of Mexico are mestizos, who are the farmers and rancheros, the muleteers and servants. Many of them are intelligent and skilful, but the lower orders among them—the so-called lcperos—are hopelessly idle and vicious. The Indians, who constitute over one-third of the population, lead a life of their own, mingling but not mixing with the other races. From them chiefly are drawn the peons, or agricultural labourers, who, through a system that keeps them permanently in debt, to-day are scarcely less slaves than were their ancestors under the Spaniards. On every hacienda there is a tienda, or store; there everything must be purchased by the employés, whose wages (9d. to 1s. a-day) are sometimes paid in 'tallies' on it. The Indian is a poor workman and unreliable, though as a rule tractable if well treated, and easy to manage; his wants are few, and his small surplus earnings usually find their way in a few hours into the pockets of the priest, the pulque sellers, or the proprietors of the bull-ring, cock-pit, or monte table. He has no idea of honesty, however; he does not steal on a large scale, but tools, saddlery, and crops must be constantly watched. The Indians who are not employed on the estates usually live in communities resembling the old village communities of Europe. Little has been done to ameliorate the degraded condition of the labouring classes. The staple food everywhere is maize, either in the form of a moist paste or as thin cakes (tortillas), with black beans (frijoles) and red and green peppers. The houses in Mexico are mostly of adobe (sun-dried bricks), one story high. Education, as might be expected, is in a very backward condition: only 9 per cent. of the population can read and write. However, efforts are being made to remove this reproach. There are national free schools in every considerable town, a school of agriculture near the capital, and an efficient military school at Chapultepec, besides the institutions mentioned under Mexico city. Even the priests have opened a number of schools, generally as rivals to the national schools. The great mass of the people are Roman Catholics, but there is no established church. In 1867 the church property was confiscated; convents and religious houses were suppressed, and now no longer openly exist; nor are religious processions permitted. Civil marriage alone is valid, though the church ceremony in addition is not prohibited. Besides the Protestant missionary churches, some of which have made considerable progress, there is a Mexican branch of the Church Catholic of Jesus Christ, which was founded here in 1861, and within twenty years had fifty congregations established, and many schools, orphanages, and seminaries. Among some of the Indians pagan emblems and ceremonies still survive; and in 1889 Lieutenant Schwatka found in Chihuahua cliff and cave-dwellers who were sun-worshippers.

History of Mexico.—The history of ancient Mexico exhibits two distinct and widely differing periods—that of the Toltecs and that of the Aztecs. Both were Nahua nations, speaking a language which survives in Mexico to this day. The 8th century is the traditional date when the Toltecs are related to have come from the north, from some undefined locality, bringing to Anahuac its oldest and its highest native civilisation. Their capital they established at Tula, north of the Mexican valley. Their laws and usages stamp them as a people of mild and peaceful instincts, industrious, active, and enterprising. They cultivated the land, introduced maize and cotton, made roads, erected monuments of colossal dimensions, and built temples and cities, whose ruins in various parts of New Spain still attest their skill in architecture, and sufficiently explain why the name Toltec should have passed into a synonym for architect. They knew how to fuse metals, cut and polish the hardest stones, manufacture earthenware, and weave various fabrics; and to their invention are assigned the Mexican Hieroglyphics (q.v.) and calendar. It is related that a severe famine and pestilence all but destroyed the Toltec people in the 11th century, and drove the survivors southward to Guatemala and Yucatan, carrying their arts of civilisation with them; and near the end of the next century, after their place had been taken by the rude Chichimecs, a fresh migration brought, among other kindred nations, the Aztecs into the land. Within two centuries and a half this last people had become predominant. But their rule was, in a great degree, a reversion to savagery. They were a ferocious race, with a religion gloomy and cruel, and they grafted upon the institutions of their predecessors many fierce and sanguinary practices. Thus they produced an anomalous form of civilisation, which astonished the Spaniards by its mingled character of mildness and ferocity. After wandering from place to place, the Aztecs founded about 1325 the city of Tenochtitlan, or Mexico; a hundred years later they had extended their sway beyond their plateau-valley, and on the arrival of the Spaniards their empire was found to stretch from ocean to ocean.

Their government was an elective empire, the deceased prince being usually succeeded by a brother or nephew, who must be a tried warrior; but sometimes the successor was chosen from among the powerful nobles. The monarch wielded despotic power, save in the case of his great feudal vassals; these exercised a very similar authority over the peasant class, below whom, again, were the slaves. Taxation appears to have been heavy in Mexico even then. The laws were severe, nearly every crime being met with capital punishment in some form; but justice was administered in open courts, the proceedings of which were perpetuated by means of picture-written records. The Mexicans apparently believed in one supreme invisible creator of all things, the ruler of the universe; but the popular faith was polytheistic, with a number of chief and many more inferior divinities, each of whom had his sacred day and festival; whilst a crowd of nature-spirits peopled the hills and woods. At the head of the Aztec pantheon was the frightful Huitzilopochtli, the Mexican Mars. His temples were the most splendid and imposing; in every city of the empire his altars were drenched with the blood of human sacrifice, to supply victims for which the emperors made war on their neighbours or on any revolted territory, and levied a certain number of men, women, and children by way of indemnity. The victims were borne in triumphal processions, and to the sound of music, to the summit of the great pyramidal temples, where the priests, in sight of assembled crowds, bound them to the sacrificial stone, and, slashing open the breast, tore from it the bleeding heart and held it up before the image of the god, while the captor carried the carcass off to feast on it with his friends. In the years immediately preceding the Spanish conquest not less than 20,000 victims were annually immolated, including infants, for the propitiation of the rain-gods. These atrocities, originally referable to the entire absence of live-stock, were incongruously blended with milder forms of worship, in which fruits, flowers, and perfumes were offered up amid joyous outbursts of song and dance. According to the tradition, Quetzalcoatl, who delighted in these purer sacrifices, had once reigned among the Toltecs in the golden age of the world, but, being obliged to retire from earth, he departed by way of the Mexican Gulf, promising to return. This tradition accelerated the success of the Spaniards, whose light skins and long dark hair and beards were regarded as evidences of their affinity with the long-looked-for divinity. The Mexican priesthood formed a rich and powerful order of the state, and were so numerous that Cortes found as many as 5000 attached to the great temple of Mexico. The education of the young of both sexes was entrusted to the priests and priestesses; and the sacerdotal class were thus able to exercise a widely-diffused influence, which, under the later rulers, was almost equal to that of the emperor himself. The women shared in all the occupations of the men, and were taught, like them, the arts of reading, writing, ciphering, singing in chorus, dancing, &c., and even initiated in the secrets of astronomy and astrology.

Cortes landed at Vera Cruz in 1519; the history of the conquest of the Aztec land is told at length in the article on that greatest of the conquistadores, who gave to Spain what for centuries remained her richest province. Before his energy, and the superior civilisation of his followers, the power of the native empire crumbled away. In 1540 Mexico was united with other American territories—at one time all the country from Panama to Vancouver's Island—under the name of New Spain, and governed by viceroys (57 in all) appointed by the mother-country. The intolerant spirit of the Catholic clergy led to the suppression of almost every trace of the ancient Aztec nationality and civilisation, while the commercial system enforced crippled the resources of the colony; for all foreign trade with any country other than Spain was prohibited on pain of death. The natives were distributed as slaves on the various plantations, though they were also christianised and looked after by the Inquisition, whose last auto-da-fé was held in Mexico city as late as 1815. Mexico was regarded as simply a mine to be worked by the labour of its people for the benefit of Spain. Yet, notwithstanding these drawbacks, it ranked first among all the Spanish colonies in regard to population, material riches, and natural products. For nearly three centuries it may be said to have lain in sullen submission beneath its cruel conquerors' heel, till in 1810 the discontent, which had been gaining ground against the viceregal power during the war of the mother-country with Napoleon, broke into open rebellion under the leadership of a country priest named Hidalgo. After his defeat and execution in 1811 Morelos, another priest, continued the struggle till he shared the same fate in 1815; and a guerilla warfare was kept up until, in 1821, the capital was surrendered by O'Donohu (a Spaniard of Irish descent), the last of the viceroys. In the following year General Iturbide, who in 1821 had issued the plan de Iguala, providing for the independence of Mexico under a prince of the reigning house, had himself proclaimed emperor; but the guerilla leader Guerrero, his former ally, and General Santa-Anna raised the republican standard, and in 1823 he was banished to Italy with a pension. Returning the following year he was taken and shot, and the federal republic of Mexico was finally established.

For more than half a century after this (till 1876) the history of Mexico is a record of nearly chronic disorder and civil war. Within that period the country had fifty-two presidents or dictators, another emperor, and a regency; and in nearly every case the change of administration was brought about with violence, a respectable proportion of these great men being ultimately shot by some opposing faction. In 1836 Texas secured its independence, for which it had struggled for several years, and which Mexico was compelled to recognise in 1845. In that year Texas was incorporated with the United States; but its western boundary was not settled, and the Americans coveted a particular strip of territory, and sent troops to seize it. The war thus wantonly provoked was continued with great energy by both parties until 1848, when peace was finally concluded after several bloody engagements had been fought, and the city of Mexico had been stormed and taken by the Americans under General Scott. As the result of this war Mexico was compelled to cede half a million square miles of territory to her powerful enemy. For the details of the war, see UNITED STATES, and SANTA-ANNA. Under the latter also falls to be told so much as is necessary of the history of the next few years. After his fall in 1855, down to 1867, great confusion prevailed. In 1858 Benito Juarez (q.v.) became president, but his claims were contested by General Miramontes—the head of the reactionary or clerical party—and the country was plunged in civil war. The acts of wanton aggression and flagrant injustice perpetrated on foreigners in Mexico during this period of internal disorder, in which the Cortes passed an act suspending all payments to foreigners for two years, could not fail to draw upon the Mexican government the serious remonstrance of those European powers whose subjects had just cause of complaint; and the result was to bring a fleet of English, French, and Spanish ships into the Mexican Gulf for the purpose of enforcing satisfaction. In 1861 the Spaniards disembarked a force at Vera Cruz; and this step was soon followed by the arrival before that city of the allied fleet. Preparations to advance at once upon the capital alarmed the provisional government, and brought about an armistice, with a view of negotiating a treaty for the future regulation of commercial intercourse between Mexico and the great European powers. This treaty was drawn up and provisionally ratified by the different commanders, but not confirmed on the part of France, and consequently the French troops retained occupation of the Mexican territory after the English and Spaniards had declined to join in further hostile demonstrations. In April 1862 the French emperor formally declared war against the government of Juarez; but the French never met with the welcome they expected from the people, and had ultimately to withdraw, without permanent success, in 1867—mainly because of the jealousy of their action shown by the United States. Maximilian, Archduke of Austria, who had become emperor of Mexico under French auspices, was executed in the same year, and Juarez returned to practically absolute power. For this period, see

Mexico; Lord Kingsborough's Antiquities of Mexico (for picture-writings and documents); Humboldt's Vues des Cordillères; Charnay's Ancient Cities of the New World (Eng. trans. 1887); Stephens' Incidents of Travel (New York, 1841); E. B. Tylor's Anahuac (1861); Bancroft's Native Races of the Pacific States (1875-76); Lewis H. Morgan's Ancient Society (New York, 1877); Strelbel's Alt-Mexiko (Hamburg, 1885-89); Peñañel's Monuments of Mexican Art (1890). See also Pimentel's Historia de la Literatura y de las Ciencias en Mexico (Mexico, 1886-98); and for Mexico as it is, books by E. J. Howell (1892), 'A Gringo' (1893), and C. E. Lummis (1898).