Iceland is an island in the North Atlantic immediately south of the Polar Circle, which just touches the northernmost point of the island, the Mehakkaslétta. It lies between 63° 23' and 66° 33' N. lat., and between 13° 22' and 24° 15' W. long. The meridian of Ferro crosses the island in the middle. The distance from Iceland to Greenland is about 250 miles, to Norway 600 miles, to the Faroe Islands about 250 miles, and to Scotland 500 miles. Its superficial area is 40,300 sq. m. (more than a third larger than Scotland); its length from east to west 300 miles, and its breadth from north to south 200 miles. The whole length of the south coast from east to west is entirely wanting in bays and firths; the coastline is not, however, straight, but bulges out largely in the middle, and the north coast has an inward corresponding curve. Other parts of the coast, especially the north-west and east coasts, are very much indented by firths and bays, as may be seen from the fact that the circumference of the island, if measured from point to point, is only 900 miles, but the coast-line following the indentations would be above 2000 miles. The principal bays and firths of the island are Faxafloi, Breithifjord (Broad Firth), and Ísafjord (Ice Firth), on the west coast; the Húnaflói (Bear-cub's Bay), Skagafjord (Ness Firth), Eyafjord (Island Firth), and Skjálfaðafloi (Slivering Bay), on the north coast. On the east coast there are no large firths, but many small ones; the best known of these is Seythisfjord (Fry Firth).
Taken as a whole, Iceland may be said to be a tableland about 2000 feet high. In some parts it slopes pretty evenly down to the coast, as is the case on the south side between Eyafjallajökull and Reykjanes. Here is the largest extent of lowland, about 1400 sq. m. The next largest piece of lowland is the Borgarfjord, which extends to the Snaefellsjökull range of hills, and is about 400 sq. m. The firths in the north-west, in the north, and in the east, may be looked upon as so many cuttings in the tableland effected by volcanic and glacial action during former geological periods of the island. In most cases these cuttings are comparatively narrow, and hills rise to about 2000 feet abruptly from the water, ending in steep precipices, which afford breeding-places to an immense number of sea-fowl. This is especially the case in the north-west and the east. In the north, and in some parts of the east, there are several broad valleys running from the firths into the interior. Iceland is throughout volcanic, and, according to geologists, it owes its existence entirely to volcanic action. The interior and highest part of the island consists of volcanic tufa; the hills of the east and west consist for the most part of basalt. The whole of the interior is occupied by barren sands, lava tracts, and icefields. The largest of these lava tracts is Óðathraun, about 1200 sq. m. The largest icefield is that of Vatnajökull, about 3000 sq. m., and all the icefields together cover 5360 sq. m. At the south-east corner of Vatnajökull is the highest mountain in Iceland, called Óraefajökull; it is 6426 feet above the level of the sea, and its upper part is covered with everlasting snow or ice; and so are more or less all mountains above 4000 feet, as the snow-line is usually at from 3000 to 4000 feet. There are twenty volcanoes which have been active at one time or another since the island was inhabited. The most famous of these is Hecla (q.v.), because its eruptions have been most frequent. There are, however, other volcanoes, such as Laki, near Skaptá, which have been the seats of more gigantic eruptions. This volcano threw out in 1783 a lava stream about 45 miles in length and nearly 15 miles in breadth. Such an outpour from one volcano at one time is unexampled anywhere else. The south-west peninsula, Reykjanes, has frequently been disturbed by volcanic outbursts, which have not been confined to the land, but islands in the sea round it have been thrown up or submerged alternately by submarine volcanic action. As a result of this volcanic activity, 2400 sq. m. of Iceland are covered with lava. Many of the ice-hills have been active volcanoes during the last 600 years, such as Óraefajökull and Eyafjallajökull. These ice-volcanoes never throw out any lava, but mud and ashes. The numerous hot springs scattered about the island are also connected with the volcanic fires; these are in many parts made use of by the inhabitants for cooking and washing purposes. There is great difference in the heat of these springs; some are just warm enough for bathing, others convert their water into steam at a degree far above the boiling-point. The most famous of these hot springs is Geyser (q.v.). Earthquakes sometimes do a great deal of damage in various parts of the island, as in 1896.
Many considerable rivers run from the interior either north or south, but none of them are navigable, because of their rapidity. The longest are Thjórsá (Bull River) in the south, Jökulsá á Fjöllum and Skjálfaðalfjót in the north, each being above 100 miles in length. Of the numerous lakes, Thingvallatn in the south and Mývatn in the north are the largest. Of the many pretty waterfalls may be mentioned Gullfoss in Hvítá, Gothafoss in Skjálfaðalfjót, and Dettifoss in Jökulsá.
Iceland is not rich in minerals, at least not in paying quantities. There are many sulphur-mines, and some of them have been worked till lately with English capital, but not with profit. Surtarbrandur (lignite) and brown coal are found in many places, as well as iron and lime, but it is very doubtful if it would pay to work them.
The climate of the south of Iceland is somewhat like that of the north of Scotland—i.e. rather wet and changeable, but colder. In the north of the island the climate is drier and colder still. Thunderstorms are rather rare, and usually occur in winter. The winter is mild considering the latitude, but spring and summer are frequently cold. The mean temperature of the years 1884–89 in the north was about 35° F. The greatest peculiarity of the Iceland climate is the varying mean temperature of the same month, the difference sometimes being 27°. This is owing to the arrival or non-arrival of the Greenland ice, which not unfrequently blocks up the north and east coasts of the island from April to September.
The only cereal found in Iceland is the so-called melur (Elymus arenarius), a kind of wild oats. Turnips, carrots, cabbages, and potatoes thrive very well, and are now cultivated to some extent. The grasses, both wild and cultivated, however, are the principal product of the island. Of trees there is the birch (Betula intermedia), seldom exceeding 12 feet in height, and some willows and juniper bushes; amongst the heather are found crowberries and whortleberries.
The only wild animals are the fox and the reindeer; there are both white and blue foxes. Reindeer were introduced in 1770, and there are still a few herds of them running wild on the hills in the interior; they are of very little use to the inhabitants. Of domestic animals the sheep is the most important; it is usually horned, sometimes even with three and four horns, and has some general resemblance to the black-faced sheep of Scotland. The lambs are weaned about the end of June, and the ewes are milked. Large numbers of them are now exported alive to Scotland and England. The cows are of a small breed, but yield a larger quantity of milk in proportion to their size than most other cows. The ponies are generally about 12 hands, but very strong and sure-footed. Thousands are brought to Scotland every year. The genuine Iceland dog has some resemblance to the Eskimo dog and the Scotch collie. According to the latest statistics there are about 20,000 cattle, 500,000 sheep, and 30,000 ponies in the island. Of birds there are immense numbers, especially of water-fowl, the most important of which is the Eider-duck (q.v.); it yields large quantities of eider-down, and is almost a domesticated bird in many parts of the island. The ptarmigan is the only game-bird. The most remarkable bird of prey is the Icelandic falcon, formerly so much esteemed for falconry. Of other birds, the whooper or wild swan may be mentioned; it breeds largely in Iceland. The sea around the coasts is very rich in fish, especially cod and herring; the cod-fisheries have been carried on a long time by the islanders, and now also by the French, who employ annually between 200 and 300 vessels in this fishing. Little attention was paid to the herring-fishing till about 1880, when it was largely developed by the Norwegians, and now also by the Icelanders themselves. Finbacked whales, of late successfully fished by the Norwegians, and seals are also numerous. Many of the salmon and trout rivers are now rented by Englishmen. 'There are no snakes to be met with throughout the whole island'—to cite the whole of the memorable seventy-second chapter repeated by Dr Johnson from Horrebow's Natural History of Iceland (Copenhagen, 1750; Eng. trans. 1758).
Iceland was discovered about the beginning of the 9th century by Irishmen or Scotsmen, but they did not make any permanent settlement. About seventy years later it was rediscovered and colonised by Norwegians, who preferred to leave their native land rather than submit to the rule of Harold Haarfager. Many of them had previously settled in the Orkneys, Hebrides, and Ireland; and when they were not safe there from the attacks of Harold, they went to Iceland, and a considerable number of Irishmen and Scotsmen went with them. Ingolf was the first settler. In about sixty years the whole island was inhabited, and an aristocratic republic was formed, the central point of which was the Althing which met every year at Thingvellir. In 1262–64 the Icelanders acknowledged the sovereignty of the king of Norway; and in 1388, when Norway was united with Denmark, Iceland shared the same fate. When, however, Denmark had to give up Norway in 1814, Iceland remained with Denmark, because, it is said, the negotiators of the peace of Vienna in 1814 did not know that there was such an island as Iceland in existence. The Althing continued under the Norwegian and Danish rule with very limited powers till 1800, when it was abolished. In 1874 the king of Denmark gave the island a new constitution, according to which the Althing, which had been reorganised in 1843, obtained legislative powers in all matters concerning Iceland. The king appoints a governor (Landshöfthingi), who, with a small council, carries on the government (till 1893 under a secretary for Iceland in Copenhagen). In the year 1000 Christianity was introduced in Iceland, and a century later two bishops' sees, one at Skálholt, the other at Hólar, were established. About the middle of the 16th century the Reformation was introduced in Iceland, and since then all the Icelanders have remained Lutherans. Church matters are now superintended by one bishop at Reykjavík.
The most notable events in the history of Iceland from its union with Norway are a long series of afflictions and calamities, caused by volcanic outbursts, severe seasons, epidemics (such as the black death in 1402, the great plague in 1494, the ravages of the smallpox), and in some cases by misgovernment. The population of Iceland in 1801 was 46,240; in 1880, 72,422; in 1890, 70,927; in 1895, 73,449, though in 1872–95, 9000 emigrated to America. In the 12th and 13th centuries the Icelanders produced more vernacular literature than any other nation in Europe, and from that time love of information has been a distinguishing feature of the Icelanders. At the present day elementary education is so general that a child of ten unable to read is quite an exception, and most of them can write also. There are several schools for children, but for the most part education is imparted at home. There are two higher schools for general education, and a college at Reykjavik for classical instruction; there are also two other colleges for ministers and medical students. Many farmers are acquainted with two foreign languages. Reykjavik, on the south-west coast, is the capital of Iceland, with about 3000 inhabitants. There are two other villages, Isafjord in the north-west and Akureyri in the north, each with 500 inhabitants. For the rest the population is scattered all round the island on isolated farms. The principal means of support of the Icelanders are the rearing of live-stock and fishing. The chief exports are: live sheep, in 1889 about 60,000; salt mutton, 600,000 lb. annually; wool, 1,200,000 lb.; sheepskins, 20,000; tallow, 60,000 lb.; horses, about 2000; salted cod, haddock, and ling, 14,800,000 lb.; salted salmon, about 40,000 lb.; cod-liver oil, about 1800 barrels; shark-liver oil, 4000 barrels; eider-down, 6400 lb.; and feathers, 12,000 lb. The annual imports are: corn and breadstuffs, 10,971,000 lb.; coffee, 440,000 lb.; chicory, 190,000 lb.; sugar, 1,025,000 lb.; salt, 46,000 barrels; tobacco, 133,000 lb.; spirits, 42,000 gallons; beer, 16,000 gallons; petroleum, 55,000 gallons; coal, 4500 tons; fishing-lines and ropes, 55,000 lb. Besides these, timber, iron, cotton goods, and other clothing stuffs are imported. The value of the foreign trade, in 1849 only £168,000, was in 1895 £830,350. There are now import duties on spirits and wines, tobacco, coffee, and sugar. The trade with Iceland was confined to Copenhagen for several centuries, and so is the largest part of it still. Since the year 1854 the trade has been free to all nations, and now it is going more and more to Leith and Newcastle. The only native industry consists in working the wool of the sheep into various articles of clothing; this is chiefly done by the women in winter. The Icelanders make a sort of tweed which they call vathmál, and this is the principal clothing material of the inhabitants, but is not exported. On most farms there is an old-fashioned loom in which the vathmál is woven.
See Von Troil, Letters on Iceland (1772); Sir George Mackenzie, Travels in Iceland (1810); Henderson, Journal of a Residence in Iceland (1818); C. S. Forbes, Iceland: its Volcanoes, Geysers, and Glaciers (1860); Sir Richard F. Burton, Ultima Thule: a Summer in Iceland (1875); J. C. Poestion, Island das Land und seine Bewohner (Vienna, 1885); and A. Baumgartner, Island und die Farber (Freib. i. Br. 1889).
ICELANDIC LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.—The language which is now called Icelandic was down to the 13th century spoken all over Scandinavia—i.e. in Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, as well as in the Faroe Isles, Shetland, the Orkneys, the Hebrides, and on the coasts of England, Scotland, and Ireland. It was a sister language to the Anglo-Saxon and Old German. Formerly its name was Dönsk tunga (the Danish tongue) or Norraena (the Northern tongue). Its similarity to Anglo-Saxon was so close that the ancient Icelandic authors asserted that the same language was spoken in England till the arrival of William the Conqueror as in Scandinavia. This is the language which the Norwegians brought over to Iceland in the 9th century, and because it is now nowhere spoken but in Iceland, it is called Icelandic. The present Danish and Swedish stand in the same relation to it as Italian and Spanish stand to Latin. In Iceland it has undergone so little change that any Icelandic child who has learned to read can read the sagas and songs of the 12th and 13th centuries as easily as an English child can read Shakespeare. There is, however, reason to believe that the pronunciation has been somewhat altered, especially that of the vowels and two of the consonants: the k and the t have in some words been softened into g and ð (th) respectively. The vocabulary, the inflexions, and the grammatical construction have been preserved almost unaltered. The relationship to Anglo-Saxon and English may be seen at a glance, so many words in both languages being quite the same. We will take as instances several names of the body, as Icelandic hönd, 'hand'; finger, 'finger'; föttr, 'foot'; bak, 'back.' And if this is the case with English, it is still more so with Scotch, for generally, where the Scotch differs from the English in pronunciation of a word, it is identical with that of Icelandic. In some cases the consonant has been softened in English where it has remained hard in Icelandic; thus the letter h in connection with s is a softened form of k—e.g. 'shall' is in Icelandic, skul: 'shell' is skel; 'skip' is skip, and instances of this kind might be multiplied infinitely. The Icelandic is an inflectional language, having four cases not only for the nouns but also for each gender of the adjectives, some of the numerals, and the pronouns. With regard to the phonetics of the language, it may be remarked that vowel change (umlaut) has been carried further than in any other of the Teutonic tongues. The chief characteristics which distinguish Icelandic from German and English are the ending of the infinitive in a vowel, usually a, the suffixing of the definite article, and the passive or middle voice of the verb. To every student of Northern history the question must occur, why this ancient tongue has been preserved in Iceland, and not as well in some other parts of the north which have been quite as isolated as Iceland. We have no hesitation in giving as reason the fact that the Icelanders were the only people who had any literature in it, and always took great interest in that literature. This literature has not merely a philological interest, but even more historical interest, as it contains a full account of the men who left their mark in every corner of Europe, who were, in fact, masters of Europe during the 9th and 10th centuries, and whose language and laws are at this moment important elements of the language and institutions of the English-speaking race. It also throws no obscure light on the beliefs and modes of life of our common ancestors.
The earliest monuments of this tongue are found in the Runic inscriptions of Scandinavia (see RUNES). The remains thus found are indeed very different from the language as it appears in Icelandic literature; there is, however, sufficient similarity to show that the language there employed is really the same. The Runic monuments range from the 8th to the 12th century. The earliest literary productions in the Icelandic tongue are the mythical songs contained in the so-called poetical Edda (q.v.), the collection of which has, we believe erroneously, been attributed to Samund the Learned, who died in 1133. It is impossible to ascertain how far these songs were brought to Iceland by the Norwegians, though some of them seem to point to a time anterior to the settlement of the island. The only thing we know for certain is, that they existed in Iceland in the later part of the 12th century. The identification of some or all of them with either Norway or the Western Islands is founded on no firmer basis than mere conjecture. These songs may be divided into mythical and heroic songs. The mythical songs contain an account of the gods and giants, the creation of the world and of man, the world-long struggle of the gods with the giants or Titans of the Northern mythology, the day of judgment, or the destruction of the gods, the giants, and the world, out of the ruins of which a new heaven and a new earth are to arise. One of the songs of this collection is the Hácamál (the Song of the High One—viz. Odin); it is a didactic poem containing rules of conduct in various situations and views of life. The heroic songs mostly treat of the same subject as the German Nibelungenlied. Some of these songs contain the most exquisite expressions of Icelandic poetry. There are several other songs of the same type as the Edda. All these songs are alliterative; their characteristics are simplicity of diction and natural expression. By the side of these popular songs a more artificial poetry was developed by the Skalds (q. v.); here rhyme was added to alliteration, and the expression was so artificial that they could be understood by the initiated only. As the theme of their poems was usually a king or chief, whose heroic deeds they celebrated in their songs, this kind of poetry has been called court-poetry. Many of these songs formed the nucleus of the later saga. Either the Skald himself, or another person who had learned his poem, would recite it, give explanations of it, and add further particulars to the life of him whom the poet celebrated, and thus the saga took shape shortly after the celebration of the events in the song. Thus a literature arose without the use of letters.
The runes were used only for inscriptions, not for literary purposes. Some authorities, however, are of opinion that the earliest Icelandic writings were in runes, but, as there is not a single tittle of such writing left as evidence, the conjecture seems very hazardous. The first Icelandic bishop, Isleif, who died in 1080, introduced the Latin alphabet, and taught young men in preparation for the priestly office. In the beginning of the 12th century another bishop had a school where Latin was taught. Shortly afterwards began that literary activity which made the Icelanders famous. The old prose literature of Iceland consists for the most part of sagas—i.e. tales, both historical and fabulous. They are all more or less in the form of biographies; their authors are for the most part unknown. With regard to the scenes of the sagas, they may be divided into Icelandic sagas, or biographies of Icelanders in Iceland, the sagas of the kings of Norway, and sagas concerning other countries. These sagas give a faithful picture of the life and manners of those times, but chronology is usually their weakest point. The father of Icelandic literature was Ari the Learned (1067–1148). He was the first who began to write down the sagas, most of which had already been formed in the mouth of the saga-teller. The principal works of Ari are the Landsnámabók, or account of the settlement of Iceland, containing the names, genealogy, and brief accounts of every settler. It is an evidence of very careful research and wonderful memory of the author. No other country in the world has such an account of its earliest history. He also wrote a small book called Libellus Islandorum, on the history of Iceland down to 1135, and an account of the introduction of Christianity called Kristni Saga. All these have come down to us; but he also wrote a larger book on Iceland which is lost, and the lives of the earliest kings of Norway, which are also lost except so far as they may be embodied by Snorri Sturluson (1178–1241), the historian and poet. His best-known works are the prose Edda, or manual of Scandinavian mythology and Icelandic poetry, and the Lives of the Kings of Norway, or Heimskringla, down to the death of Sigurd the Crusader (1130). The third name is that of Sturluson's nephew, Sturla Thordarson (1214–84), also a poet and historian. He wrote the Íslendinga Saga, also called Sturlunga, a graphic account of the feuds between the chiefs of Iceland in the 13th century, which resulted in the subjection of the island to the king of Norway. He also wrote the life of Hákon the Old, who died at Kirkwall in 1263, and that of his son Magnus. The latter is now lost except a few fragments. The sagas already translated into English are: Heimskringla, Orkneyinga Saga, the story of Burtn Njal, the story of Gisli the Outlaw, the Vígglúms Saga, the Gunnlaugs Saga, the Volsunga Saga, and several smaller ones.
Besides the sagas and poetry there are also found grammatical essays from the 12th and 13th centuries, astronomical treatises, a guide for travellers to Rome and Jersalem. A remarkable work appeared in the 13th century called Konungs Skuggsjá ('king's mirror'), which contains a philosophical contemplation of life, with rules for conduct under various circumstances and in the company of all sorts of people. The old Icelanders were no less industrious translators than original writers, for they seem to have afforded any foreign book that came into their hands. Thus they translated many medieval romances, such as the legends of King Arthur, and these translations are now of great value for the textual criticism of the originals. Among the most remarkable translations of those times is a version of the Old Testament, intermingled with various observations on natural history, compiled from medieval sources. This is perhaps the oldest translation of the Bible in any living language. There are also translations of a great number of homilies, of lives of saints, and legends of the church. The code of laws of the Icelandic republic, called Grágás (gray goose), first written down in 1118, gives ample evidence of great skill in legislative enactments, and is well worth studying in connection with the legal history of other Teutonic nations.
Shortly after 1300 the literary productiveness of the Icelanders ceased, except for the writing of annals, which had begun in the preceding century. The principal literary activity of the 14th century consisted in copying and making collections of the labours of former centuries. Many of the sagas have been preserved in these copies only, the originals being lost. The 15th century is almost a blank as far as literary activity is concerned, if we except a few song-writers; yet even then there were some students of the old sagas. About the middle of the 16th century a new turn was given to the literary pursuits of the Icelanders by the introduction of the Reformation. The whole Bible was translated and published in 1584, and many other theological works from Danish and German. In the 17th century the interest in the old literature was reawakened, and many parchments were transcribed. At this time also the collecting of manuscripts began, and they were carried partly to Sweden and partly to Denmark. To the latter country they were taken by the indefatigable collector Arni Magnússon, who died in 1730, after having bequeathed his collections to the university of Copenhagen. There is no doubt that this exportation of the manuscripts was very fortunate for their preservation. From this time the literary treasures of Iceland began to be known abroad; the first to make known the historical value of the sagas was the Icelandic Torfiens, who died in 1719. Since then there has been no want of diligent and careful students of Icelandic literature both among Icelanders, Scandinavians, Germans, and lately also among the English.
The literary activity of the modern Icelanders is not confined to the study of the old literature alone; there is also a considerable modern literature, though it is comparatively less interesting. Iceland has always been and still is rich in song-writers, especially of a lyrical and religious tendency. To the natural history and the history of the island itself there have been valuable contributions. Considering the population and other circumstances of the island, it cannot be denied that the Icelanders at the present day compare favourably in respect to literary activity with any other people in similar circumstances.
The best guide to the old literature of Iceland is to be found in the Prolegomena to the Sturlunga Saga, edited by Dr G. Vigfússon (Oxford, 1878). See also the Corpus Poeticum Boreale; the poetry of the Old Northern tongue to the 13th century (2 vols. 1883), edited, translated, and illustrated by Vigfússon and Powell. Cleasby and Vigfússon's great Icelandic-English dictionary (1874) is the standard one. There is a list of Books printed in Iceland, by Fiske (1890).