California, a state of the American Union, bounded N. by Oregon. E. by Nevada and Arizona, S. by the Mexican territory of California, and W. by the Pacific Ocean. The parallels of 32° 28' and 42° N. lat. respectively mark its S. and N. limits. The name California was given by the Spanish discoverers to the peninsular or Mexican territory, being transferred by them from Montalvo's Las Sargas de Esplandian (a continuation of his Amadis, q.v., 1508), in which it occurs as the name of an island full of gold and precious stones. The state has an area (according to the United States census of 1880) of 155,980 sq. m. It is thus larger than any other state except Texas, and larger than any territory except Alaska. It is larger than Italy, or Prussia, or Hungary, and more than a fourth larger than the whole of the United Kingdom.
The aspect of the country is extremely various, yet everywhere very different from that of the Atlantic and central states of the Union. Along the eastern border of the state, throughout the greater part of its length, extend the ranges of the Sierra Nevada (of which there is, however, in general, one main range), having a breadth of from 75 to 100 miles from east to west. In
Copyright 1888 in U.S.
by J. B. Lippincott
Company. the extreme north the Sierra Nevada narrows and falls off in height; but by a relatively low ridge it connects with the Cascade Range (q.v.), which is both geographically and geologically its northward extension. The scenery in this part of the state is generally attractive, and often (as in the wonderful Yosemite and Hetch-Hetchy valleys) it is very striking. There are ten peaks which exceed 10,000 feet in height; Mount Whitney (14,898 feet) being higher than any other in the United States outside of Alaska. Several peaks have perpetual snow on their crests, and some small glaciers exist in the range. West of the Sierra Nevada lies the central valley of California, drained by the Sacramento River from the north, and the San Joaquin from the south, the two rivers having a common delta, and discharging their waters into the bay of San Francisco, through a shallow expanse called Suisun Bay. The eastern slope of the great valley is very gradual, while the opposite side of the Sierras has a sharp and precipitous descent towards the great basin of Nevada. The Coast Mountains do not form any very clearly defined range, but consist of a number of ill-defined ridges. In the north they are blended with the mountains of the eastern system; but to the north of the state limits the two systems again separate. To the south of the San Joaquin Valley a transverse ridge connects the coast-ranges with the Sierra, or its southern extension, separating to some extent Southern California from the rest of the state. This southern region occupies nearly one-fourth of the area of the state. Geologically, the coast-ranges are in general of much more recent date than the Sierra proper. The coast-line is mostly high and rocky, with only a few bays and harbours.
Extending more than 700 miles from north to south, and having great variations in respect of height, California presents a great variety of climatic conditions. In the north-west the rainfall is excessive, and in the north the winters are rather severe than mild; the coast region of the northern half of the state is damp, with cool or cold nights, even in summer. But Southern California, in temperature and productions, has a semi-tropical character; and the serenity of its climate has made it famous as a winter-resort and as a place of residence for invalids. In the south the scanty rainfall and the extreme summer heat detract from an otherwise perfect climate. In general it may be said that the winters in California are mild, and the summers dry, and not intensely hot, though often very dusty. There are practically but two seasons—a more or less rainy winter, and a nearly rainless summer. Extremes of temperature are much less marked than in the states east of the Rocky Mountains. The mean temperature in winter at Humboldt Bay is 43.5°, in summer 57.5°; at Fort Yuma the winter mean is 57°, while the summer mean is 90°. In the interior the thermometer sometimes reaches 120° in summer.
Besides the San Joaquin and Sacramento and their tributaries, the principal rivers are the Rio Colorado, which forms the boundary between this state and Arizona; the Klamath River and its tributary the Trinity; the Mad, Smith, Eel, and other rivers, mostly small and flowing to the Pacific. Some of the interior streams flow to lakes and 'sinks' with no outlet to the sea. The principal lakes are Tulare Lake, which at high-water pours its surplus into the San Joaquin River; Clear Lake, noted for its beauty; Lakes Klamath and Rhet (or Tule) on the Oregon boundary; the great lakes of Modoc county, which have no outlets; the high mountain lake Tahoe, noted for its fine scenery; and the strongly alkaline and saline Mono and Owens lakes, which occupy ancient craters. Some of the dried-up lakes of the south-east have left basins lower than the sea-level.
The geology of the state presents some difficult problems, though its general features are simple. It would appear that a large part of the rock-formation was deposited by extinct rivers flowing seaward during the Palæozoic era, throughout a great part of which time the ocean seems to have washed the western shores of the Rocky Mountain chain. The Sierra Nevada is to a great extent an upheaval dating from about the end of the Jurassic period. To the northward there are abundant evidences of much more recent volcanic action, such as the great lava beds of the north-east; and earthquakes, usually slight, are still frequent. The Sierra Nevadas in their turn suffered great denudation, and the wash from their sides forming an off-shore deposit, was at length slowly upheaved into the coast mountains. They may be assumed to date from near the end of the Miocene period. The richest finds of gold have been in detached Jurassic and Triassic fields along the slope of the Sierras, or at their base. The gold production of the state, at one time enormous, has of late years greatly declined. In 1848-64 the annual production was 56,000,000; in 1887 it was close on 20,000,000; in 1892 it was only 12,000,000. From 1848 till 1892 the total production was 1,390,000,000. The ores at present worked are chiefly the abundant low-grade and lean ores, such as, if worked by the processes which prevailed a few years ago, would not afford a fair profit. Three-fourths of the annual product in bullion is now obtained from quartz; the rest mainly by hydraulic and drift mining. Quick-silver, lead, and silver ore are also largely obtained. Among the valuable minerals obtainable are borax, rock-salt, marbles, asphalt, potash-salts, native soda, sulphur, kaolin, and many others. California ranks as the third state of the Union in the product of petroleum. Natural gas, suitable for fuel, is reported to be found at various points. The coals of California are low-grade lignites, and are not extensively wrought. Copper, iron, chromium, antimony, and other metals abound.
But the metallic and mineral wealth of the state is not more remarkable than the range and magnitude of its agricultural resources. Wheat is the cereal most cultivated, and next to that barley. Oats do well, and maize grows in certain districts. The ordinary root-crops and garden vegetables flourish well, except potatoes, which, however, do well locally. Alfalfa, or lucerne, is a leading forage-crop. Experiments have shown that cotton, sugarcane, and rice can be grown throughout a large part of the interior valley. Nearly all the valuable fruits of the temperate zone flourish admirably, as well as the orange, lemon, fig, olive, almond, and pomegranate. Vast amounts of dried and otherwise preserved fruits are exported. The culture of semi-tropical fruits has latterly had a great extension in the central valley. The European grape-vine thrives finely here, and in general culture it replaces the native American species. The raisins of California are of high excellence and are abundantly produced; and brandy and wine are largely exported. The breeding of sheep and cattle is extensively carried on, wool especially being a staple product. Silk-growing is conducted on a moderate scale. Bee-keeping is a pursuit of great importance, some of the honey-farms ranking among the largest in the world. Dairy-farming is locally important. In many sections extensive systems of irrigation have been put in operation to facilitate agriculture. Irrigation is carried on by the network of flumes or ditches left by the placer system of mining for gold, as also by pumping and by artesian wells sunk through the dry and porous alluvial soil to the gravel beneath.
The native flora of California is very distinct from that of the country east of the Rocky Moun- tains. Mention should be made of the 'big trees' (Sequoia gigantea; in Britain commonly known as Wellingtonia), notably for their enormous size; also of the valuable redwood (Sequoia sempervirens), which forms extensive forests in the north. The country has a large number of interesting native shrubs and flowering plants. Several species of Eucalyptus and of other Australian trees have been introduced, and thrive remarkably. In the extreme south palm-trees and other subtropical plants locally occur. The forests, especially to the north, afford great amounts of timber, and the manufacture and shipment of lumber constitute an important industrial feature. Other leading branches of manufacture are the distillation of brandy, sugar-refining, the drying and preserving of fruits, shipbuilding, and the packing of meats. Many other manufacturing interests are in course of development. California blankets have a wide reputation for excellence. The fisheries are large and of growing importance. A considerable proportion of the product of the Alaska fisheries is marketed by way of San Francisco, and the ocean traffic of the state is chiefly centred at that port. The principal exports are wheat, barley, wool, wines, brandy, honey, hops, timber, provisions, metals, ores, borax, and other minerals; fish and furs, largely from Alaska; dried, preserved, and green fruits, including oranges, prunes, raisins, and almonds. At the end of the decade 1891-1900 California ranked amongst the five great wheat-growing states; and beet-sugar growing more than quadrupled in that period.
The university of California is at Berkeley. The Lick Observatory, with its famous Telescope (q.v.), belongs to the state university, but is at Mount Hamilton, 50 miles south of San Francisco. The Leland Stanford University is at Palo Alto (q.v.). Pop. (1850) 92,597; (1860) 379,994; (1870) 560,247; (1880) 864,694; (1890) 1,208,130—of whom 11,322 were coloured persons, 12,285 Indians, 72,472 Chinese, and 1147 Japanese. The immigration of Chinese (in the proportion of twelve males to one female) attained an enormous maximum in 1882, but was almost wholly stopped by restrictive legislation in that year.
The principal cities and towns are San Francisco (q.v.), the largest city on the Pacific slope of North America; Los Angeles, the metropolis of Southern California; San Diego, in the extreme south, which has the only commodious harbour in the state, excepting that of San Francisco; Oakland, Alameda, and Berkeley, which may be considered suburbs of San Francisco; Bakersfield and Fresno City, in the south part of the central valley; Napa City; the gold-mining towns of Nevada City and Grass Valley; Sacramento, the capital of the state; San Bernardino, in the south; Stockton, near the centre; San Buenaventura, Santa Cruz, and Santa Barbara on the coast; San Jose and Monterey, each formerly the state capital; Santa Rosa and Marysville.
History.—The peninsular (and still Mexican) territory of Old California was visited by Spaniards as early as 1534; and Cortez himself is believed to have surveyed the Gulf of California in 1536. Sir Francis Drake visited the coast in 1578. The early missions of what is now the state of California were under Franciscan control, and for many years throve wonderfully. With the rest of Mexico, California became independent of Spain in 1822. This region was chiefly important for its export of hides and skins until after the war of 1847 between the United States and Mexico, one of the results of which was the transfer of Upper California (vastly more extensive than the present state) to the flag of the United States. The discovery of gold in 1848 was followed by an enormous excitement and an influx of gold-seekers. California was admitted to the Union in 1850. The administrative organisation was too weak to keep in order the wild lawless spirits who abounded amongst the new comers. Crimes of violence were frequent and were apt to go unpunished. Lynch Law (q.v.) became inevitable, and was had recourse to; soon after 1851, vigilance committees were established in the chief towns, and arrested, summarily tried, and hanged convicted thieves and murderers. The singular conditions of society that prevailed, in which gambling of all kinds was very conspicuous, is reflected in a considerable literature, of which Bret Harte is the best-known representative. Gradually a more regularly ordered state of things was established, and the development of the country has since been steady and rapid. In 1898 the state had 5300 miles of railway. See SAN FRANCISCO, YOSEMITE; histories of California by Capron (1854), Hittell (1886), Royce (1886), Soulé, and H. H. Bancroft; and other works on the state by Cronise (1878) and Nordhoff (1882).
LOWER or OLD CALIFORNIA is a peninsula and a territory of Mexico, continuous southward from the state of California, and is detached by the Gulf of California and the lower reaches of the Rio Colorado from the rest of Mexico. Its reported area is 61,562 sq. m., or more than half the extent of Great Britain and Ireland. The climate is exceedingly dry, and excepting in some of the valleys, agriculture is hardly practicable. The surface of the country is mostly covered with mountains, often rough and broken, but nowhere very high. The whale-fishery on the west coast, and the pearl-fishery of the gulf, are of some value. Mining enterprises have been undertaken at various points, with but moderate success at the best. Since 1880 over 400 mines have been reported as being wrought. Salt is obtained from the Gulf Coast, and chiefly from Carmen Island, and orchil is brought from the dry interior. Sugar is produced in a rude way in some of the fertile valleys. The vintage of El Patronio is highly esteemed. The capital is La Paz, on one of the bays of the gulf. Pop. of territory, 34,198.
THE GULF OF CALIFORNIA, an arm of the Pacific Ocean, which divides the peninsula above described from the rest of Mexico, was originally known as the Sea of Cortez, by whom it was explored. It is 700 miles in length, and varies in width from 40 to 100 miles. At its northern extremity, where it receives the Colorado, it almost touches the territory of the United States.